This article discusses structures for habitation.For other meanings of the word "house", see House (disambiguation).
A house in its most general sense consists of a human-built dwelling with enclosing walls, a floor, and a roof. It provides shelter against precipitation, wind, heat, cold and intruding humans and animals. When occupying a house routinely as a dwelling. English-speaking humans may call that house their home (though animals may often live in the house as well, both domestic pets and "unauthorised" animals such as mice living in the walls). People may leave their 'home' most of the day for work and recreation, but typically return home at least for sleeping.
A house generally has at least one entrance, usually in the form of a door or a portal - but note that some early houses such as those at Çatalhöyü ;k used roofs and ladders for access. Many houses have back doors that open into the back yard (American English) or garden. Houses may have any number of windows or none at all. [edit]
Word use
In English the word "house" on its own usually refers to a dwelling for one family, or for more than one family living together, sharing the house. In other languages the translation for "house" often covers other types of building, such as tower blocks or commercial property: in German, for example, a "Haus" can also refer to a hotel or a block of "flats" (UK) or "apartment" blocks (US).
English-speakers can use the word "house" in combination with other words in English to describe buildings other than residential dwellings, such as an opera house, a "monkey house" (a building for several cages) in a zoo, etc. The term "madhouse" refers disparagingly to a mental hospital or insane asylum (also see House (disambiguation) for more.) The White House has only a secondary use as a dwelling.
As a verb, to house (pronounced "haʊz") means "to provide a routine locale for an object, a person or an organization". Museums, for example, can house historic or artistic artifacts. A business may be housed in a storefront, or a family may be housed (by a local authority, for example) in an apartment or a house. Planners and the like often refer to a collection of domiciles (either for persons, for organizations, for animals or for objects) as housing. An individual person or a single object might also find housing in an appropriate domicile.
"House" and "home" are not synonymous. "House" refers to the physical object, "home" has a more abstract and poetic connotation as the center of family life. Enlisted men during World War II used the phrase "A house is not a home" - in part to justify infidelity during war-time. On the other hand, a stately home classifies as a house. [edit]
Types of house
See also list of house types.
Three basic house types exist:
* Single-family homes - detached and often standing on their own parcel of land * Semi-detached houses - attached to one or more houses * Terrace (architecture) (UK) or rowhouse (USA) - attached to other houses, possibly in a row (separated by a party wall)
In the United Kingdom, 27% of the population lives in terraced houses and 32% in semi-detached houses, as of 2002. In the United States in 2000, 61.4% of people lived in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, the rest living in rowhouses or apartments, except for 7% living in mobile homes.
A "face house" is built in one or more faces; though it occurs most commonly as a fort or playhouse for children, this design sometimes serves as a house for adults.
Archaeologists have a particular interest in house shape: they see the transition over time from round huts to rectangular houses as a significant advance in optimising the use of space, and associate it with the growth of the idea of a personal area. [edit]
Inside the house Floor plan of a typical "4-square" house Enlarge Floor plan of a typical "4-square" house
Many houses have several rooms with specialised functions. These may include a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if indoor facilities are available) a washing/lavatory area. Often, in traditional agrarian societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with human beings. In the West, with ready access to plumbing and a fairly high standard of living, each house will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or kitchen area, and a living room. A typical "4-square house" (pictured) occurred commonly in the early history of the United States of America, with a staircase in the center of the house, surrounded by four rooms, and other sections of the house including a garage.
Ideally, builders of houses should design rooms to meet the needs of the people who live in the house. Such designing, known as interior design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui, originally a Chinese method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and microclimates, has recently expanded its scope to include designing house interiors with the intention of giving harmonious effects to the people living inside the house. [edit]
Construction
Popular modern house construction techniques include light-frame construction (in areas with access to supplies of wood) and adobe or sometimes rammed-earth construction (in arid regions with scarce wood-resources). Some areas use brick almost exclusively, and quarried stone has long provided walling. Increasingly popular alternative construction materials include insulated concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing and heavy-gauge steel framing.
Some home designers have begun to collaborate with structural engineers who use computers and finite element analysis to design kitted and pre-cut steel-framed homes with known resistance to high wind loads and seismic forces. These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and possibly accelerated construction processes.
Lesser-used construction methods which have gained (or regained) popularity in recent years include:
* Cannabrick construction * cordwood construction * straw bale construction * geodesic domes.
These methods though not in wide use, frequently appeal to homeowners who may become actively involved in the construction process.
Compare wattle and daub. [edit]
Animal houses
Humans often build "houses" for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles. Familiar animal houses built by humans include bird houses, hen houses and dog houses ("kennels" in Commonwealth English), while housed agricultural animals more often live in barns. However, human interest in building houses for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bird houses, bat houses, nesting sites for wild ducks, and more. [edit]
Heraldry
The house occurs as an exceedingly rare charge in heraldry. [edit]
Shelter
Forms of shelter simpler than a house include:
* dugouts * yaodongs * tents (see also camp) * campers * huts * roofs without walls, or a structure with roof and partial walls, such as often at a bus stop (see picture there), and a gazebo.
Compare houseboat. [edit]
See also [edit] Articles
* Affordable housing * Building material * Domotics and home automation * Earth-sheltered home * Housing bubble * Housing estate * Housing in Japan * Housewarming party * Hurricane proof house * Lustron * Lodging * Mobile home * Modular home * Prefabrication * Trailer
[edit] Lists
* List of house types * List of house styles * List of types of lodging * List of real estate topics * List of famous American Houses
[edit]
External links
* Photos of rare houses at Singleton Wealdland and Downland Museum, Nr Chichester
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Laboratory glassware refers to a variety of equipment, traditionally made of glass, used for scientific experiments and other work in science, especially in chemistry and biology laboratories. Some of the equipment is now made of plastic for cost, ruggedness, and convenience reasons, but glass is still used for some applications because it is relatively inert, transparent, more heat-resistant than some plastic up to a point, and relatively easy to customize. Borosilicate glasses such as Pyrex are often used because they are less subject to thermal stress. For some applications quartz is used for its ability to withstand high temperatures or its transparency in certain parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. In some applications, especially some storage bottles, darkened brown glass is used to keep out much of the outside light so that the effect of light on the contents inside is minimized. Special-purpose materials are also used; for example, hydrofluoric acid is stored and used in containers made of wax or polymer because it attacks glass.
Use of lab glassware
There are many different kinds of laboratory glassware items, the majority of which are covered in separate articles of their own; see the list further below. Such glassware is used for a wide variety of functions which include volumetric measuring, holding or storing chemicals or samples, mixing or preparing solutions or other mixtures, containing lab processes like chemical reactions, heating, cooling, distillation, separations including chromatography, synthesis, growing biological organisms, spectrophotometry, and containing a full or partial vacuum. This article covers aspects of laboratory glassware which may be common to several kinds of glassware and may briefly describe a few glassware items not covered in other articles. [edit]
Production of lab glassware
Most laboratory glassware is now mass-produced, but most large laboratories employ a glass blower to construct specialized pieces. This construction forms a specialized field of glassblowing requiring precise control of shape and dimension. In addition to repairing expensive or difficult to replace glassware, scientific glassblowing commonly involves fusing together various glass parts such as glass joints and tubing, stopcocks, transition pieces, and/or other glassware or parts of them to form items of glassware such as vacuum manifolds, special reaction flasks, etc. [edit]
Glass parts for making lab glassware
Various types of joints and stopcocks are available separately and come fused with a length of glass tubing which a glassblower may use to fuse to another piece of glassware. [edit]
Ground glass joints
In a lab experiment or process such as a distillation or a reflux, it is often desirable to assemble the set-up from component glassware items in a leak-tight but non-permanent way. Using old technology, this was often done with rubber (or possibly cork) stoppers inserted between the component glassware items. Holes could be made in such stoppers to insert glass tubes or the ends of some glass items. However, rubber (and of course cork) are not as chemically inert or heat-resistant as glass and degrade with age. For this reason, many glassware items are now made with convenient ground glass joints for connecting the items together. In order to connect the hollow inner spaces of the glassware components, these types of joints are hollow on the inside and open at the ends, except for stoppers.
Crude versions of conically-tapered ground glass joints have been made for quite a while, particularly for stoppers for glass bottles and retorts. These days, ground glass joints can be precisely ground to a reproducible taper or shape. They are made to join two glassware pieces together. One of the glassware items to be joined would have an inner (or male) joint with the ground glass surface facing outward and the other would have an outer (or female) joint of a correspondingly-fitting taper with the ground glass surface facing inward. A rather thin layer of grease particularly made for this application can be applied to the ground glass surfaces to be connected and the inner joint is inserted into the outer joint such that the ground glass surfaces of each are next to each other to make the connection. In addition to making a leak-tight connection, the grease allows to joints to be later separated more easily.
Two general types of ground glass joints are fairly commonly used: joints which are slightly conically-tapered and ball and socket joints(sometimes called spherical joints). Standard Taper symbol Standard Taper symbol
* The conically-tapered ground glass joints typically have a 1:10 taper and are often labeled with a symbol consisting of a capital T overlaid on a capital S which stands for "Standard Taper". This symbol is followed by a number, a slash, and another number. The first number represents the outer diameter in millimeters (mm) at the base of an inner joint or the inner diameter in mm at the tip of an outer joint, in both cases where the applicable diameter is at a maximum in the joint. The second number represents the ground glass length of the joint in mm. These joint sizes apply only to glassware in the US. There are also European ISO standard joints. The stopper joints of chemical bottles, volumetric flasks, and separatory funnels often do not use the precision standard taper ground glass joints. Stopper joints are designated (if at all) only by the maximum diameter number. Fairly recently, Teflon sleeves have been used in between joints to fit them together instead of grease.
Conically-tapered ground glass joints. Inner (male) joint shown on the left and outer (female) joint shown on the right. Ground glass surfaces are shown with gray shading. By putting them together in the direction of the arrows, they can be joined, usually with some grease applied to the ground glass surfaces. Conically-tapered ground glass joints. Inner (male) joint shown on the left and outer (female) joint shown on the right. Ground glass surfaces are shown with gray shading. By putting them together in the direction of the arrows, they can be joined, usually with some grease applied to the ground glass surfaces.
* For ball and socket joints, the inner joint is a ball and the outer joint is a socket, both having holes leading to the interior of their respective tube ends to which they are fused. The ball tip is a hemisphere with a ground glass surface on the outside which fits inside of the socket where the ground glass surface is on the inside. Ball and socket joints are labeled with a size code consisting of a number, a slash, and another number. The first number represents the outer diameter in mm of the ball at its base or the inner diameter in mm at the tip of a socket, in both cases where the diameters are their maximum in the joints. The second number represents the inner diameter of the hole in the middle of the ball or socket, which leads to the inner diameter of the tube fused to the joint.
For either standard taper joints or ball and socket joints, inner and outer joints with the same numbers are made to fit together. When the joint sizes are different, ground glass adapters may be available (or made) to place in between to connect them. Special clips or pinch clamps may be placed around the union of the joints to help keep them together.
Round-bottom flasks often have one or more conically-tapered ground glass joint openings or necks. Conventionally, these joints at the flask necks are outer joints. Other adapters such as distillation heads and vacuum adapters are made with joints that fit in with this convention. If a flask or other container has an extra outer ground glass joint on it which needs to be closed off for an experiment, there are often conically-tapered inner ground glass stoppers available for such a purpose. In some cases, small hook-like protrusions made of glass may be fused onto the rest of the glass item near a joint to allow an end loop of a small spring to be attached so the spring helps keep joints temporarily together. The use of a special very small size of conically-tapered fitting for glass, plastic, or metal parts called a Luer fitting or adapter has become more widespread. Originally, Luer fittings were mostly used to connect the hub of a needle to a syringe. Where the use of ground glass presents a problem such as in the production or distillation of diazomethane, which may explode on contact with rougher surfaces, equipment with smooth glass joints may be used. [edit]
Hose connections
Laboratory glassware such as Buchner flasks and Liebig condensers may have tubular glass tips serving as hose connectors with several ridged hose barbs around the diameter near the tip. This is so that the tips can have the end of a rubber or plastic tube mounted over them to connect the glassware to another system such as a vacuum, water supply, or drain. A special clip may be placed over the end of the flexible tube surrounding the connector tip to prevent the hose from slipping off the connector. [edit]
Stopcocks
Stopcocks are basically valves. They are often parts of laboratory glassware such as burettes, separatory funnels, and columns used for column chromatography. The stationary outer body of the stopcock is typically made of glass since it is fused with the rest of the glass item. The inner plug or rotor, which can be rotated inside the body to control flow through the stopcock, has one (or more) holes going through it which serve as a fluid pathway(s). This inner plug or rotor can be made of plastic or glass. When it is plastic, the stopcock body's inner glass surface contacting it is typically smooth glass. When it is made of glass, the contacting glass surfaces are typically both ground glass surfaces with stopcock grease used between them for lubrication. High vacuum glass manifolds typically use all glass stopcocks. Such stopcocks are often available separately with some lengths of glass tubing at the ports so that glass blowers can use them to make custom glass manifolds for vacuum lines. [edit]
O-ring joints
There are also glass joints available sometimes which use an O-ring between them to form a leak-tight seal. Such joints are more symmetrical in theory with a tubular joint on each side having a widened tip with a concentric circular groove into which an elastomer O-ring can be inserted between the two joints. O-ring joints are sized based on the inner diameter in mm of the joint. Since they can come apart rather easily, a clip or pinch clamp is needed to hold them together. The elastomer of the O-ring is more limited in high temperature resistance than other types of glass joints using high temperature grease. [edit]
Threaded connections
Round slightly spiral threaded connections are possible on tubular ends of glass items. Such glass threading can face the inside or the outside. In use, glass threading is screwed into or onto non-glass threaded material such as plastic. Glass vials typically have outer threaded glass openings onto which caps can be screwed on. Bottles and jars in which chemicals are sold, transported, and stored usually have threaded openings facing the outside and matching non-glass caps or lids. [edit]
Glass-to-metal transition joints
Occasionally, it may be desired to fuse a glassware item to a metal item with a tubular pathway between them. This requires the use of a glass-to-metal transition joint. Most glass used in laboratory glassware does not have the same coefficient of thermal expansion as metal, so fusing the usual type of glass with metal is likely to result in cracking of the glass. These special transition joints have several short sections of special types of glass fused together between the metal and the usual type of glass, each having more gradual changes in thermal expansion coefficients. [edit]
Fritted glass
Fritted glass is finely porous glass through which gas or liquid may pass. It is made by sintering together glass particles into a solid but porous body. This porous glass body can be called a frit. Applications in laboratory glassware include use in fritted glass filter items, scrubbers, or spargers. Other laboratory applications of fritted glass include packing in chromatography columns and resin beds for special chemical synthesis.
In a fritted glass filter, a disc or pane of fritted glass is used to filter out solid particles, precipitate, or residue from a fluid, similar to a piece of filter paper. The fluid can go through the pores in the fritted glass, but the frit will often stop a solid from going through. A fritted filter is often part of a glassware item, so fritted glass funnels and fritted glass crucibles are available. Gas-washing bottle Enlarge Gas-washing bottle
Laboratory scale spargers, scrubbers, and gas-washing bottles are similar glassware items which may use a fritted glass piece fused to the tip of a gas-inlet tube. This fritted glass tip is placed inside the vessel with liquid inside during use such that the fritted tip is submerged in the liquid. A gas stream is rather slowly blown into the vessel through the fritted glass tip so that it breaks up the gas entering the liquid into many tiny bubbles in order to maximize surface area contact of the gas to the liquid. The purpose of sparging is to saturate the enclosed liquid with the gas, often to displace another gaseous component. The purpose of a scrubber or gas-washing bottle is to scrub the gas such that the liquid absorbs one (or more) of the gaseous components to remove it from the gas stream, effectively purifying the gas stream. [edit]
Cleaning laboratory glassware
There are many different methods of cleaning laboratory glassware. Common methods are:
* base bath and acid bath * aqua regia * hydrogen peroxide * chromic acid ("piranha solution")
For all methods, as much contaminants as possible should be removed with solvent or by scrubbing with a brush or Scotchbrite.
Do note that the methods listed below vary from lab to lab. [edit]
Base Bath and Acid Bath
The glassware is soaked in a vat of ethanol saturated with sodium hydroxide overnight. It is rinsed in tap water, soaked in dilute hydrochloric acid for a few hours to remove remaining sodium hydroxide. Thereafter, it is rinsed several times with distilled water before drying in an oven.
This is a good general purpose method which removes most organic compounds (acidic, basic, and neutral). It is also good for removing hydrocarbon or silicone laboratory grease, but does not remove Krytox or similar fluorocarbon based greases. [edit]
Aqua Regia
Aqua regia is prepared with 3 volumes of concentrated hydrochloric acid with 1 volume of concentrated nitric acid. The colorless solution turns a deep yellow shortly, evolving a choking gas (Cl2? NO2?) - use a hood! The glassware (typically frits) to be cleaned is immersed in this solution.
This method is good for removing metals such as palladium black which get stuck in frits and are not easily removed. Aqua regia also oxidizes most organic compounds, but the hydrogen peroxide method may be preferred. This method is suitable for cleaning NMR tubes. [edit]
Hydrogen Peroxide
3 volumes of 30 % hydrogen peroxide is added to 1 volume of concentrated sulfuric acid. Caution! The container gets very hot! Once again, the glassware to be cleaned is immersed in this solution. Ensure that any acetone remaining is rinsed off with water to prevent the formation of explosive peroxides.
This method is good for removing intractable organics in frits and NMR tubes.
Some laboratories do not permit the use of concentrated hydrogen peroxide, due to the explosion risk. [edit]
Chromic Acid
Chromic acid is another strong oxidizer which can remove most organic compounds. Glassware is cleaned by soaking in a solution of sodium dichromate in c. sulfuric acid.
It is not suitable for cleaning NMR tubes due to traces of paramagnetic chromium which will remain on the glass surface.
This method is banned in many laboratories because of the possibility of explosions, as well as the toxicity of chromium. [edit]
List of laboratory glassware
Laboratory glassware includes:
* flasks
* Erlenmeyer flasks
* Buchner flasks - type of thick-walled Erlenmeyer flasks for vacuum
* test tubes and boiling tubes * beakers * Petri dishes * watch glasses * glass rods * microscope slides * graduated cylinders * traditional pipettes * crucibles -often made of porcelain or other materials for high temperature resistance * cuvettes -often special glass used for optical transparency * burettes * droppers and Pasteur pipettes * jars, glass bottles, and similar glass containers
* Winchester (bottle)
* vials (including special vials for scintillation counting) * ampoules * funnels including Buchner funnels, Thistle tubes, and fritted glass filters * separatory funnels * Soxhlet extractors * glass dessicators * gas syringes * other syringes * laboratory glass condensers * other distillation glassware including old-fashioned alembics and retorts * conical measures * bell jars * bubblers - vessels which can hold some liquid through which a gas can bubble through, often used for isolating an enclosed gas space from the atmosphere but keeping atmospheric pressure by letting excess gas bubble through the liquid. * gas-washing bottles, spargers, or scrubbers - for sparging (or scrubbing) gas * glass columns for fractional distillation and column chromatography and sometimes gas chromatography * glass joint adapters * pycnometer * vacuum line glassware including manifold with stopcocks and cold traps * drying tubes, acid trap tubes, scrubbing trap tubes and containers * thermometers and hydrometers are often largely made of glass
* glass parts for lab glassware
* stopcocks (essentially valves) * ground glass joints, including conically tapered and ball and socket * glass tubing in general and specifically capillary tubing * glass stoppers * glass-to-metal transition pieces * fritted glass pieces
[edit]
External links
* Using Glassware (.PDF) * The Glassware Gallery: Glassware Joints
* a name that is entered into a computer (e.g. as part of a Web site or other URL, or an e-mail address) and then looked up in the global Domain Name System which informs the computer of the IP address(es) with that name. * the product that registrars provide to their customers. * a name looked up in the DNS for other purposes.
They are sometimes colloquially (and incorrectly) referred to by marketers as "Web addresses".
* The authoritative definition is that given in the RFCs that define the DNS.
Domain names are hostnames that provide more easily memorable names to stand in for numeric IP addresses. They allow for any service to move to a different location in the topology of the Internet (or another internet), which would then have a different IP address.
Each string of letters, digits and hyphens between the dots is called a label in the parlance of the domain name system (DNS). Valid labels are subject to certain rules, which have relaxed over the course of time. Originally labels must start with a letter, and end with a letter or digit; any intervening characters may be letters, digits, or hyphens. Labels must be between 1 and 63 characters long (inclusive). Letters are ASCII A–Z and a–z; domain names are compared case-insensitively. Later it became permissible for labels to commence with a digit (but not for domain names to be entirely numeric), and for labels to contain internal underscores, but support for such domain names is uneven. These are the rules imposed by the way names are looked up ("resolved") by DNS. Some top level domains (see below) impose more rules, such as a longer minimum length, on some labels. Fully qualified domain names (FQDNs) are sometimes written with a final dot.
Translating numeric addresses to alphabetical ones, domain names allow Internet users to localize and visit Web sites. Additionally since more than one IP address can be assigned to a domain name, and more than one domain name assigned to an IP address, one server can have multiple roles, and one role can be spread among multiple servers. One IP address can even be assigned to several servers, such as with anycast and hijacked IP space.
Examples
The following examples illustrates the difference between a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and a domain name:
As a general rule, the IP address and the server name are interchangeable. For most Internet services, the server will not have any way to know which was used. However, the explosion of interest in the Web means that there are far more Web sites than servers. To accommodate this, the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) specifies that the client tells the server which name is being used. This way, one server with one IP address can provide different sites for different domain names. This feature goes under the name virtual hosting and is commonly used by Web hosts.
For example, the server at 192.0.34.166 handles all of the following sites:
example.com example.net example.org
[edit]
Top-level domains
Every domain name ends in a top-level domain (TLD) name, which is always either one of a small list of generic names (three or more characters), or a two characters territory code based on ISO-3166 (there are few exceptions and new codes are integrated case by case).
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) has overall responsibility for managing the DNS. It controls the root domain, delegating control over each top-level domain to a domain name registry. For ccTLDs, the domain registry is typically controlled by the government of that country. ICANN has a consultation role in these domain registries but is in no position to regulate the terms and conditions of how a domain name is allocated or who allocates it in each of these country level domain registries. On the other hand, generic top-level domains (gTLDs) are governed directly under ICANN which means all terms and conditions are defined by ICANN with the cooperation of the gTLD registries.
Domain names which are theoretically leased can be considered in the same way as real estate, due to a significant impact on online brand building, advertising, search engine optimization, etc.
A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost or even free domain registrations, with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains are hosted on their site in a framework or portal, with advertising wrapped around the user's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. When the DNS was new, domain registrations were free. A domain owner can generally give away or sell infinite subdomains of their domain, e.g. the owner of example.edu could provide domains that are subdomains, such as foo.example.edu and foo.bar.example.edu. [edit]
Uses and abuses
As domain names became attractive to marketers, rather than just the technical audience for which they were originally intended, they began to be used in manners that in many cases did not fit in their intended structure. As originally planned, the structure of domain names followed a strict hierarchy in which the top level domain indicated the type of organization (commercial, governmental, etc.), and addresses would be nested down to third, fourth, or further levels to express complex structures, where, for instance, branches, departments, and subsidiaries of a parent organization would have addresses which were subdomains of the parent domain. Also, hostnames were intended to correspond to actual physical machines on the network, generally with only one name per machine. However, once the World Wide Web became popular, site operators frequently wished to have memorable addresses, regardless of whether they fit properly in the structure; thus, since the .com domain was the most popular and memorable, even noncommercial sites would often get addresses under it, and sites of all sorts wished to have second-level domain registrations even if they were parts of a larger entity where a logical subdomain would have made sense (e.g., abcnews.com instead of news.abc.com). A Web site found at http://www.example.org will often be advertised without the "http://", and in most cases can be reached by just entering "example.org" into a Web browser. In the case of a .com, the Web site can sometimes be reached by just entering "example" (depending on browser versions and configuration settings, which vary in how they interpret incomplete addresses).
The popularity of domain names also led to uses which were regarded as abusive by established companies with trademark rights; this was known as cybersquatting, in which somebody took a name that resembled a trademark in order to profit from traffic to that address. To combat this, various laws and policies were enacted to allow abusive registrations to be forcibly transferred, but these were sometimes themselves abused by overzealous companies committing reverse domain hijacking against domain users who had legitimate grounds to hold their names, such as their being generic words as well as trademarks in a particular context, or their use in the context of fan or protest sites with free speech rights of their own. [edit]
Generic domain names — problems arising out of unregulated name selection
Within a particular top-level domain, parties are generally free to select an unallocated domain name as their own on a first come, first served basis. For generic or commonly used names, this may sometimes lead to the use of a domain name which is inaccurate or misleading. This problem can be seen with regard to the ownership or control of domain names for a generic product or service.
By way of illustration, there has been tremendous growth in the number and size of literary festivals around the world in recent years. In this context, currently a generic domain name such as literary.org is available to the first literary festival organisation which is able to obtain registration, even if the festival in question is very young or obscure. Some critics would argue that there is greater amenity in reserving such domain names for the use of, for example, a regional or umbrella grouping of festivals. Related issues may also arise in relation to non-commercial domain names. [edit]
Unconventional domain names
Due to the rarity of one-word dot-com domain names, many unconventional domain names, domain hacks, have been gaining popularity. They make use of the top-level domain as an integral part of the Web site's title. Two of the most visited domain hack Web sites are del.icio.us and blo.gs, which spell out "delicious" and "blogs", respectively.
Some unconventional domain names are also used to create unconventional email addresses. Non-working examples that spell 'James' are j@m.es and j@mes.com, which use the domain names m.es (of Spain's .es) and mes.com. [edit]
Commercial resale of domain names
An economic effect of the widespread usage of domain names has been the resale market for generic domain names that has sprung up in the last decade. Certain domains, especially those related to business, gambling, pornography, and other commercially lucrative fields have become very much in demand to corporations and entrepreneurs due to their intrinsic value in attracting clients. In fact, the most expensive Internet domain name to date, according to Guinness World Records, is business.com which was resold in 1999 for $7.5 million. Another high value domain name, sex.com, was stolen from its rightful owner by means of a forged transfer instruction via fax. During the height of the dot-com era, the domain was earning millions of dollars per month in advertising revenue from the large influx of visitors that arrived daily. Two long-running U.S. lawsuits resulted, one against the thief and one against the domain registrar VeriSign[1]. In one of the cases, Kremen v. Network Solutions, the court found in favor of the plaintiff, leading to an unprecendented ruling that classified domain names as property, granting them the same legal protections. In 1999, Microsoft traded the valuable name Bob.com for the name Windows2000.com which was the name of their new operating system.[2]
One of the reasons for the value of domain names is that even without advertising or marketing, they attract clients seeking services and products who simply type in the generic name. Furthermore, generic domain names such as Rent.com or Books.com are extremely easy for potential customers to remember, increasing the probability that they become repeat customers or regular clients.
Although the current domain market is nowhere as strong as it was during the dot-com heyday, it remains strong and is currently experiencing solid growth again. Annually tens of millions of dollars change hands due to the resale of domains. Large numbers of registered domain names lapse and are deleted each year. On average 25,000 domain names drop (are deleted) every day. [edit]
Caveat Emptor
Care should always be exercised when registering a domain name: DNS is case-insensitive and the modern trend of words run together with intercapping can be misinterpreted when converted to lowercase. Who Represents, a database of artists and agents, chose whorepresents.com; a therapists' network thought therapistfinder.com looked good; Experts Exchange, the programmers' site, for a long time had expertsexchange.com.
In such situations, the proper wording can be clarified by use of hyphens. For instance, expertsexchange.com changed its name to experts-exchange.com.
DNS is case-insensitive, so such Web sites can also be clarified by advertising them with proper capitalization. For instance, TherapistFinder.com. [edit]
See also
* Uniform Resource Locator * Web page * Web site * World Wide Web * domaining * cname * domain hack * Internationalized domain names
[edit]
External links
* STD 13/RFC 1034, Domain Names—Concepts and Facilities, an Internet Protocol Standard. * ICANN - Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. * UDRP, Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy. * Internic.net, public information regarding Internet domain name registration services.
Categories: Articles to be merged | Domain Name System | Internet | Information technology | Identifiers
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Korea (한국, Hanguk, or 조선, Choseon) is a civilization and geographical area situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia, bordering China to the northwest and Russia to the northeast, with Japan situated to the southeast across the Korea Strait. It is often called the "Land of the Morning Calm".
One of the world's oldest civilizations, Korea has a recorded history dating back approximately 3,000 years. After unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea in 676 A.D, it was ruled by a single government and maintained political and cultural independence. Korea enjoyed a long period of relative peace, only punctuated by the Mongol invasions in the 13th century.
In 1905, Korea was occupied by Japan and remained a Japanese colony until the Empire of Japan's defeat in World War II. Following the end of the war, American and Soviet troops occupied Korea, beginning the division of the country into two political entities, South Korea and North Korea.
South Korea is a capitalist liberal democracy, and often referred to simply as "Korea". North Korea is a totalitarian Communist state that is sometimes described as Stalinist and isolationist.
Korea is populated by a relatively homogeneous ethnic group, the Koreans, who speak a distinct language called Korean and use the unique script hangul.
Names of Korea
The common name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo period of Korean history, which in turn referred to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo. It is now commonly used in English contexts by both North Korea (Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea) and South Korea (Republic of Korea).
In the Korean language, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk (Korean hangul: 한국; hanja: 韓國; revised: Hanguk; McCune-Reischauer: Han'guk) by South Korea and Chosŏn (Korean chosŏn'gŭl: 조선; hanja: 朝鮮; McCune-Reischauer: Chosǒn; revised: Joseon) by North Korea. See also Korean romanization
History Buryeongsa Enlarge Buryeongsa
* Main article: History of Korea
History of Korea
Gojoseon, Jin Proto-Three Kingdoms: Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye Samhan Gaya Three Kingdoms: Goguryeo Baekje Silla, Unified Silla Unified Silla, Balhae Later Three Kingdoms Goryeo Khitan wars Mongol invasions Joseon Seven Year War Japanese rule Provisional Gov't Divided Korea Korean War North, South Korea
Timeline Military history List of Monarchs KOREA PORTAL
There is archaeological evidence that people were living on the Korean Peninsula around 700,000 years ago, during the Lower Paleolithic.↑ The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 7000 BC, and the Neolithic period begins around 6000 BC. The Jeulmun Pottery Period spans from 3500 BC to 2000 BC.
Gojoseon
Korea was founded in 2333 BC, according to the Dangun legend. This kingdom, known as Joseon, is usually called Gojoseon (meaning Old Joseon) distinguishing it from the modern Joseon Dynasty. Gojoseon cultural artifacts and walled cities are found throughout Korea and southern Manchuria. Archeological and contemporary written records indicate it likely developed from a federation of walled cities into a centralized state sometime between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, when it declared itself a kingdom and warred with northern Zhou dynasty kingdoms. In 108 BC, the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon and installed four commanderies in northern Korea (including one near present-day Pyongyang) and Manchuria primarily as commercial outposts. Three of those commanderies fell to local resistance by 75 BC.
A state called Jin existed in southern Korea prior to Gojoseon's fall. Although very little is known about its political organization, bronze artifacts from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC have been uncovered in the region. Samhan, three loose confederacies that claimed descent from Jin, followed. In the north, the expanding Goguryeo united Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye in the former Gojoseon territory, and destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 AD. Seokguram grotto, Unified Silla period Enlarge Seokguram grotto, Unified Silla period
The Three Kingdoms
The three kingdoms Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje (the latter two arising from the Samhan) competed with each other as minor statelets fell or merged with these regional powers. Sophisticated state organizations developed under Confucian and Buddhist paradigms. Goguryeo was the most dominant power, but was at constant war with the Chinese Sui and Tang dynasties. Emperor Yang of Sui, with one million troops, invaded Goguryeo, but in 612 AD, General Eulji Mundeok pushed the Chinese forces into retreat. The unsuccessful war against Goguryeo contributed to the collapse of the Sui Dynasty afterwards.
Silla was the least culturally advanced of the Three Kingdoms, but had established a strong military centered around noble warriors called the Hwarang. Silla first annexed Gaya, then conquered Baekje and later Goguryeo with Tang assistance.
Balhae and Unified Silla
Silla eventually repulsed Tang from most of Goguryeo territory. As a result, by the 8th century, Silla occupied most of the Korean peninsula and has been thus called Unified Silla. In the late 9th century, Unified Silla gave way to the brief Later Three Kingdoms period.
After the fall of Goguryeo, General Dae Joyeong led a group of his people to the Jilin area in Manchuria. The general founded the state of Balhae (Bohai in Chinese) as the successor to Goguryeo and regained control of lost northern territory. Eventually, Balhae's territory would extend from the Sungari and Amur Rivers in northern Manchuria down to the northern provinces of Korea. In the 10th century, Balhae was conquered by the Khitans. Traditional Korean wedding ceremony Enlarge Traditional Korean wedding ceremony
Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)
The kingdom of Goryeo replaced Silla. Many members of the Balhae ruling class joined the newly founded Goryeo, which established its boundaries to an area slightly larger than the Korean peninsula (See Gando region which is now occupied by the Chinese). During this period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and Buddhism flourished in Korea.
In the 10th and 11th centuries, Korea continued to be plagued by attacks from Jurchen and Khitan tribes on the northern borders. Conflict increased between civil and military officials as the latter were degraded and poorly paid. This led to an uprising by military and forced some military officials to migrate from the country.
In 1238, the Mongols invaded. After nearly thirty years of resistance, Korea was in ruins and the two kingdoms signed a treaty that favored the Mongols. Under Mongol direction, Goryeo participated in two failed attempts at invading Japan. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal strife. Korea was at last able to forge political reform without Mongol interference. At this time, General Yi Seong-gye distinguished himself by repelling Japanese pirates, known as Wokou, who raided and stole from Korean and Chinese merchant ships as well as causing havoc to Korea's coasts. A Korean pagoda Enlarge A Korean pagoda
Joseon Dynasty (1392-1905)
In 1392, Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty, moving the capital to Hanseong (now Seoul). During the first 200 years of the new dynasty, the northern territory was added, the area of cultivated land was doubled, science and technique state jumped up, new letters fitted for Korean language (hunminjeongeum) was established, many books were published for elementary education, and constitution and law were completed.
During the late 1590s, Japan invaded Korea in two failed attempts, known together as the Seven-Year War, causing great destruction. The invaders burnt down anything they could not take back to Japan and this is when major Korean cultural artifacts went missing. With the assistance of Ming Chinese troops and the ironclad warships of Admiral Yi Sunsin, Joseon forces were able to repel the Japanese.
After the invasion by Japan, however, in the 1620s and 1630s the Joseon Dynasty was not able to defend Korea from invasion by Manchu troops. It agreed to recognize the legitimacy of the new Qing Dynasty as rulers of China. Korea then enjoyed more than two centuries of peace. In fact, the country isolated itself from the outside world so much that it was often called the "Hermit Kingdom".
The Joseon Dynasty is believed to be the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia.
Japanese occupation
* Main article: Korea under Japanese rule
Beginning in the 1870s, Japan began to force Korea to move out of China's sphere of influence into its own. In 1895, Empress Min of Korea was murdered by the Japanese under Miura Goro's directive (Kim et al. 1976). After the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars, Japan gained dominance over Korea. In 1910, Japan forced Korea to sign the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty.
Japanese occupation was brutal and led many Koreans to resist, eventually leading to the independence movement in 1919. This movement was brutally suppressed and thousands were killed by occupation forces.
During World War II, many Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands men were conscripted into Japan's military, while up to 200,000 women were used as forced laborers and sex slaves, often called "comfort women". About 60,000 Koreans working under harsh conditions in Japanese mines are known to have died between 1939 and 1945.
Anti-Japanese sentiment still runs fairly strong in Korea, especially in older generations, as a result of what Koreans see as continuing unrepentant actions.
Division
* Main article: Division of Korea
With the defeat of Japan in 1945, the Japanese colonial government was immediately replaced with American and Soviet presence. The Soviet Union supported the North Korean government, which was also associated with Communist China; the United States was closely allied to South Korea, helping Koreans with experience under the Japanese occupation to gain power and suppress Communists. Koreans faced bitter divisions: former collaborators were widely mistrusted and hated by Koreans, yet they possessed the most experience and remained in power. Communism began to take hold in Korea, and Koreans who had fought along with Communist China gained power and fame.
Korean War and hopes for reunification
* Main articles: Korean War, Korean reunification * See also: History of North Korea, History of South Korea
According to some political scientists, the Korean War resulted directly from the U.S. policy of Containment. The United States supported Korean nationalists who opposed Communism, funded and staffed the South Korean army, and influenced the United Nations to support the South Korean military (Cumings 1997). In 1945, in the aftermath of World War II, the United Nations developed plans for a trusteeship administration, the United States effectively began administering the peninsula south of the 38th parallel and the Soviet Union administering north. The politics of the Cold War resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate governments.
However, it is certain that North Korea invaded South Korea long after the US army left South Korea except for some advisers and when the South Korean government did not take the possibility of N. Korea's invasion seriously. The day when the war broke out was Sunday, and more than two thirds of the military forces were off duty in South Korea, and the North Korean army's campaign began at 4 AM.
The Korean War began in June 1950 and lasted until 1953. The North Korean army invaded the South without any notice or warning, prompting U.S. and then Chinese intervention. Millions of Koreans died, and the United States waged a bombing campaign over North Korea that effectively destroyed most cities: "There were simply 'no more cities in North Korea'" (Cumings 1997: 298). After three devastating years of fighting, the war ended in a ceasefire agreement at approximately the same boundary, though South Korea gained slightly more territory than it lost. This boundary was set as the demilitarized zone which constitutes the border between the two countries. The two countries never signed a peace treaty. Both Korean states proclaim eventual reunification as a goal, and a united Korea is very much a part of Korean ethno-cultural identity.
Since the 1990s, with progressively liberal South Korean administrations, as well as the death of North Korean founder Kim Il-sung, the two sides have taken halting, symbolic steps towards cooperation, in international sporting events, reunification of separated family members, economic matters, and tourism.
Recently, in effort to promote reconciliation, the two Koreas have adopted a single Unification Flag. While this flag may represent Korea at international sporting events, it is not the official flag of either North Korea or South Korea. Both states still officially retain the two separate national flags that they have used since their foundings in 1948.
Geography
* Main article: Korean peninsula * See also: Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea, Provinces of Korea
Korea is located on the Korean Peninsula in North-East Asia. It is bound by two countries and three seas. To the northwest, the Yalu River separates Korea from China and to the north, the Tumen River separates Korea from Russia. The Yellow Sea is to the west, the South China Sea is to the south, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) is to the east of Korea. Notable islands include Jeju-do, Ulleung-do, and Dok-do.
The southern part and western part of the Korean mainland have well developed plains, while the eastern and northern parts are mountainous. The highest mountain in Korea is Mt. Baekdu (2744m, Changbaishan in chinese). The border with China runs through the mountain. The southern extension of Mt. Baekdu is a highland called Gaema Gowon. This highland was mainly raised during the Cenozoic orogeny and partly covered by volcanic matter. To the south of Gaema Gowon, successive high mountains are located along the eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. This series of mountains is named Baekdudaegan. Some significant mountains include Sobaeksan (2,184 m), Baeksan (1,724 m), Geumgangsan (1,638 m), Seoraksan (1,708 m), Taebaeksan (1,567 m) and Jirisan (1,915 m). There are several lower, secondary mountain series whose direction is almost perpendicular to that of Baekdudaegan. They are developed along the tectonic line of Mesozoic orogeny and their directions are NW, NWW.
As opposed to the old mountains on the mainland, some important islands in Korea were formed by volcanic activity in the recent Cenozoic. Jeju-do, situated off the south coastline of the Korean Peninsula, is a large volcanic island whose main mountain is Mt. Halla (1950 m). Ulleung-do and the Dok-do are volcanic islands in the Sea of Japan, whose composition is more feslic than Jeju. The volcanic islands tend to be younger as one moves westward.
Because the mountainous regions are biased toward the eastern part of the peninsula, the main rivers tend to flow to westwards. Two exceptions are the southward-flowing Nakdong River and the Seomjin River. Important rivers running westward include the Yalu, Cheongcheon River, Daedong River, Han River, Geum River, and Yeongsan River. These rivers have vast flood plains and they provide an ideal environment for rice cultivation.
The southern and southwestern coastline of the Korean Peninsula is a well-developed Lias coastline. It is known as Dadohae in Korean. Its complicated coastline provides mild seas, and the resulting calm environment allows for safe navigation, fishing, and seaweed farming. In addition to the complex coastline, the western coast of the Korean peninsula has an extremely high tidal amplitude (at Incheon, around the middle of the western coast, it is as high as 9 m). Vast tidal flats are developing on the south and west coastline of the Korean Peninsula.
Demographics
* Main article: Korean people * See also: Demographics of South Korea, Demographics of North Korea
The Korean Peninsula is populated almost exclusively by ethnic Koreans, although a significant minority of ethnic Chinese (about 20,000 [1]) exists in South Korea, and small communities of ethnic Chinese and Japanese are said to exist in North Korea ([2]). Foreign workforce in South Korea is estimated at over half a million. The combined population (including North and South Korea) of the Korean Peninsula is about 73,000,000 people.
Language
* Main articles: Korean language, Hangul * See also: Korean numerals, Korean name
Culture
* Main article: Culture of Korea * See also: Korean architecture, Korean art, Korean pottery
Korean buddhist architecture Enlarge Korean buddhist architecture
In ancient Chinese texts, Korea is referred to as "Rivers and Mountains Embroidered on Silk" (錦繡江山) and "Eastern Nation of Decorum" (東方禮儀之國). During the 7th and 8th centuries]], land and sea trading networks connected Korea to Arabia. As early as 845, Arab traders mentioned Korea saying, "Over the sea beyond China lies a mountainous country called 'Silla', rich in gold. Muslims who arrive there by accident are so attracted by its character that they stay there forever and do not want to leave."
According to Japanese records, Chinese knowledge and technology, including Chinese characters and the major classics, such as the Confucian Analects, were introduced to Japan by Korean scholars. In 554, the Korean kingdom of Baekje sent doctors, herb and calendar specialists, and diviners to Japan, and in 602, Kwalluk, a Baekje monk, was dispatched to Japan to deliver books on astronomy calendar-making, geography, and divination
Festivities showcase vibrant colors, which are attributed to Mongolian influences; bright red, yellow, and green often mark traditional Korean motifs [3]. Mongolian influence is also seen in the traditional dress called hanbok.
Religion and education Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Goryeo scroll from the 1300s Enlarge Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas, Goryeo scroll from the 1300s
* Main articles: Korean Confucianism, Korean Buddhism, Christianity in Korea
Confucian tradition has dominated Korean thought, along with contributions by Buddhism, Taoism, and Korean Shamanism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, Christianity has competed with Buddhism to be the dominant religious force in South Korea, while religion has been suppressed in North Korea.
According to 2003 statistics compiled by the South Korean government, about 46 % of citizens profess to follow no particular religion. Christians account for 27.3% of the population and Buddhists 25.3%.
Koreans valued scholarship and rewarded education and study of Chinese classic texts; Yangban boys were highly educated in Hanja. Until modern times, Koreans placed a lot of emphasis on hereditary status. Until the 10th century, a man's "bone rank" (determined by the rank of his father and his mother) defined his social status and what government post he would be appointed to. From the 10th century through to the end of the 19th century, the social status of a man's father and mother determined which civil service examination, if any, he could take but did not guarantee him a post.
South Korea was the first country in the world to provide high-speed internet access to every primary, junior, and high school. [4]
Cuisine
* Main article: Korean cuisine * See also: Korean tea ceremony, Korean royal court cuisine
Korean cuisine is probably best known for kimchi, which uses a distinctive fermentation process of preserving vegetables. Chili peppers are also commonly used, which has given it a reputation for being spicy. Bulgogi (roasted marinated beef or pork), galbi (rib), and samgyeopsal (pork fatback) are popular meat entrees. Koreans meals are accompanied by a soup or stew, often made with dwenjang bean paste.
Sports
* See also: Korean martial arts
South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, giving the country an economic boost through increased tourism and greater world recognition. At the time, North Korea boycotted the event on the grounds that it was not made co-host. Unification Flag Enlarge Unification Flag
A unified Korean team competed under the Unification Flag in 1991 in both the 41st World Table Tennis Championship in Chiba, Japan and in the 6th World Youth Soccer Championship in Lisbon, Portugal. A unified Korean team marched under the Unification Flag in the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, and the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin but competed separately in sporting events. As of the 2006 Asian Games, South Korean officials have announced that the countries shall compete in the same unified sporting teams as well.
In the summer of 2002, the 2002 FIFA World Cup was hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan with 10 stadiums in each country. The two Koreas competed separately, however. There were suggestions that North Korea should host at least one or two matches, but nothing of the sort came to pass. While South Korea qualified automatically as co-hosts and even made it to the semi-finals (placing 4th in the end, losing to Turkey), North Korea failed to progress from the Asian Football Confederation regional qualifiers and missed the event.
Science and technology Cheomseongdae, oldest-known astronomical observatory in East Asia that still exist Enlarge Cheomseongdae, oldest-known astronomical observatory in East Asia that still exist
One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cheomseongdae, a 9-meter high observatory built in 633. It served as one of the world's oldest astronomical observatories.
The world's earliest known printed document is a Buddhist scripture printed in Korea in 750-751 CE. The world's first metal movable type was invented in Korea in 1232, before Johann Gutenberg developed metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though Koreans used wooden printing blocks by 751, this was a significant development in printing allowing continued use of the same type. Hangul, one of the world's most scientifically phonetic written scripts, was created by King Sejong in 1443. One of the world's first automated water clocks was invented in 1434 by Chang Yong-sil, who later developed an even more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, water gauge, and the rain gauge.
During the Joseon period, Korean silk was highly regarded by China and Korean pottery made with blue-green celadon was highly valued in Japan. Chinese thought Korean porcelains were of high quality, but this interest lived on only until the Koryo Dynasty. In this period, Korea advanced traditional arts and crafts, such as white celadon glazes, fine silk, and paper. Also, during this time, the world's first ironclad warships, the Geobukseon (or "Turtle ship") were invented.
However, stagnation set in and Korea fell behind the West, especially in arms technology.
Today, South Korea leads the world in per-capita high-speed Internet connections. South Korea is also a major producer of high technology products such as mobile phones and plasma screens. North Korea continues to use mostly outdated technology from the 1960s and 1970s. South Korea is also just second in leading the world in adopting new consumer technologies, right behind Taiwan [http://www.parksassociates.co...
References
* Cumings, Bruce. Korea's Place in the Sun, Norton, 1997. ISBN 0-393-31681-5 * Kim, et al. Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945, Ewha Womans University Press, 1976. ISBN 89-7300-1167.
Further readings
* Chun, Tuk Chu. "Korea in the Pacific Community." Social Education 52 (March 1988), 182. EJ 368 177. * Cumings, Bruce. The Two Koreas. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984. * Focus On Asian Studies. Special Issue: "Korea: A Teacher's Guide." No. 1, Fall 1986. * Lee Ki-baik. A New History Of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984. * Lee Sang-sup. "The Arts and Literature of Korea." The Social Studies 79 (July-August 1988): 153-60. EJ 376 894.
See also
Portal:Korea Korea Portal Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Korea
* Founding myth of Korea * Famous Korean people * East Asian age reckoning * Korean name * List of Korea-related topics * National treasures of Korea * Provinces of Korea * Rulers of Korea * Traditional Korean thought * Korean nationalism * List of divided nations
External links
* Korean Food Picture Glossary * Account of a voyage of discovery to the west coast of Corea, and the great Loo-Choo island; with an appendix, containing charts, and various hydrographical and scientific notices. By Captain Basil Hall with a vocabulary of the Loo-Choo languages, by H. J. Clifford. Publisher: London, J. Murray, 1818. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) * CIA World Factbook Entry for South Korea * CIA World Factbook Entry for North Korea * Country study South Korea * Country study North Korea * Korea News * Korea in Manchuria * Korean communities in the US * Pre-20th-Century Korea * Paekche of Korea and the origin of Yamato Japan * Shinmiyangyo, The 1871 U.S. Korea Campaign * Teaching about the two Koreas * Learn Korean * Korean Music * Wikia has a wiki about: Korea * Incheon International Airport
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Flag of Norway Coat of arms of Norway Flag Coat of arms Motto: Royal Motto: Alt for Norge (All for Norway) 1814 Eidsvoll oath: Enig og tro til Dovre faller (United and Loyal until the Dovre Mountains fall) Anthem: Ja, vi elsker dette landet Location of Norway Capital Oslo 59°56′ N 10°41′ E Largest city Oslo Official language(s) Norwegian¹ Government King Prime Minister Constitutional monarchy Harald V Jens Stoltenberg Constitution Independence - Declared - Recognised 17 May 1814 From union with Sweden 7 June 1905 26 October 1905 Area - Total
- Water (%) 324,220 km² (68th ²) 125,149 sq mi 6.0% Population - February 2006 est. - 2001 census - Density 4,641,500 (114th) 4,520,947 14/km² (166th ²) 37/sq mi GDP (PPP) - Total - Per capita 2005 estimate $194.7 billion (42nd) $42,400 (4th) HDI (2003) 0.963 (1st) – high Currency Norwegian krone (NOK) Time zone - Summer (DST) CET (UTC+1) CEST (UTC+2) Internet TLD .no ³ Calling code +47 1Official national language is Norwegian bokmål and nynorsk. Additionally Sami is co-official language of six municipalities and Finnish of one municipality. 2 Excluding Svalbard and Jan Mayen 3 Two more TLDs assigned, but not used: .sj for Svalbard and Jan Mayen; .bv for Bouvet Island
Norway, or officially the Kingdom of Norway (Norwegian: Kongeriket Norge or Kongeriket Noreg) is a Nordic country on the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, bordering Sweden, Finland and Russia. Norway's extensive coastline along the North Atlantic Ocean is home to its famous fjords. The country has a very elongated shape. The Kingdom of Norway also includes the Arctic island territories of Svalbard and Jan Mayen. The Norwegian sovereignty on Svalbard is based on the Svalbard Treaty, but this does not apply to Jan Mayen. Bouvet Island in the South Atlantic Ocean and a claim for Peter I Island in the South Pacific Ocean are also external dependencies, but these are not part of the Kingdom. Additionally, Norway has a claim on Dronning Maud Land in Antarctica.
History
Main article: History of Norway
In the 9th century Norway consisted of a number of petty kingdoms. According to tradition, Harald Fairhair gathered the small kingdoms into one and in 872 with the battle of Hafrsfjord, he became the first king of a united Norway.
The Viking age (8th to 11th centuries) was one of national unification and expansion. The Norwegians settled on Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and parts of the British Islands and attempted to settle at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada (it is the Vinland of The Saga of Eric the Red). Norwegians founded the modern day Irish cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford and captured the Anglo-Saxon city of Eoforwic renaming it Jorvik, today known as York. The Norwegian Rollo invaded and was ceded Normandy by the West Frankish king Charles the Simple in 911. Rollo's great-great-great-grandso n William the Conqueror successfully invaded and conquered England in 1066.
The Norwegian royal line died out in 1387, coinciding with a recession following the Black Plague in 1349, which wiped out nearly half the population, Royal politics at the time resulted in several personal unions between the Nordic countries, eventually bringing the thrones of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden under the control of Queen Margrethe. The country entered into the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Sweden, and after 1450 remained in a union with Denmark alone that would last until 1814. As Norway was the weaker part of a union that kept all of its royal, intellectual, and administrative power in Copenhagen, Denmark, this period was in light of the national romanticism in the 19th century sometimes referred to as the "400-Year Night". Other factors also contributed to Norway's decline in this period. With the introduction of Protestantism in 1537, Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of St. Olav at the Nidaros shrine, and with them, much of the contact with the cultural and economic life of the rest of Europe. Additionally, Norway saw its land area decrease in the 17th century with the loss of the provinces Båhuslen, Jemtland, and Herjedalen to Sweden, as a result of the wars between Denmark-Norway and Sweden.
After Denmark-Norway was attacked by England, it entered into an alliance with Napoleon, and in 1814 found itself on the losing side in the Napoleonic Wars and in dire economic conditions. The Dano-Norwegian Oldenburg king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden. Norway took this opportunity to declare her independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models and elected the Danish crown prince Christian Fredrik as king on 17 May 1814. Nevertheless, Norway was militarily forced into a personal union with Sweden, but kept its liberal constitution and independent institutions, except for the foreign service.
This period also saw the rise of the Norwegian romantic nationalism movement in art and culture, as the Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character. The movement covered all branches of culture, including literature (Henrik Wergeland, Maurits Christopher Hansen, Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, Jørgen Moe), painting (Hans Gude, Adolph Tiedemand), music (Edvard Grieg), and even language policy, where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today's two official written forms for Norwegian, Bokmål and Nynorsk.
Norway's growing dissatisfaction with the union with Sweden during the late 19th century, combined with National Romanticism and the growing national culture coming from it, led to the dissolution of the union on 7 June 1905. The Norwegian government offered the throne of Norway to the Danish Prince Carl. After a referendum confirming the monarchy, the Parliament unanimously elected him king. He took the name of Haakon VII, after the medieval kings of independent Norway. In 1913, Norwegian women gained suffrage.
Norway was a neutral country during World War I. Norway also attempted to claim neutrality during World War II, but was invaded by German forces on the 9th of April 1940 (Operation Weserübung). The Allies also had plans to invade Norway, in order to take advantage of her strategically important Atlantic coast, but were thwarted by the German operation. Norway put up a stiff fight against the German occupation and armed resistance in Norway went on for two months. The battle of Vinjesvingen eventually became the last stronghold of Norwegian resistance in southern Norway in May, while the armed forces in the north surrendered in early June. King Haakon and the Norwegian government continued the fight from exile in Rotherhithe, London. On the day of the invasion, the collaborative leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling — Vidkun Quisling — tried to seize power, but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Quisling, as minister president, later formed a government under German control. During the five years of Nazi occupation, Norwegians built a strong resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both armed resistance and civil disobedience. Notable was also the effort of the Norwegian Merchant Navy. At the time of the invasion Norway had the third largest, fastest and the most effective Navy in the world. It was lead by the norwegian shipping company Nortraship under the allied force thorugout the war and took part in every war operation from the evacuation of Dunkirk until the Normandy landings.
In 1944, the Germans evacuated the provinces of Finnmark and northern Troms, using a scorched earth tactic to create a vast area of No-man's land in response to the Red Army attacking their positions in eastern Finnmark. The Soviets attacked into eastern Finnmark to create a buffer zone after pushing the German forces out of the arctic Kola peninsula. The Russians peacefully returned the area to Norwegian control after the war. The German forces in Norway surrendered on 8 May 1945.
The occupation during World War II disturbed the Norwegians' confidence in neutrality, and they turned instead to collective security. Norway was one of the signatories of the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949 and was a founding member of the United Nations, providing its first secretary general – Trygve Lie. Norway has twice voted against joining the European Union (in 1972 and 1994), but is associated with the EU via the European Economic Area. However, Norway is a member of the much smaller European Free Trade Association (EFTA). [edit]
Politics
Main article: Politics of Norway
Norway is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government.
The Royal House is a branch of the princely family of Glücksburg, originally from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. [1] The functions of the King, Harald V, are mainly ceremonial, but he has influence as the symbol of national unity. Although the constitution of 1814 grants important executive powers to the King, these are almost always exercised by the Council of State in the name of the King (King's Council, or cabinet). The reserve powers vested in the Monarch by the constitution are significant and an important security part of the role of the Monarchy, and were last used during World War II. The Council of State consists of a Prime Minister and his council, formally appointed by the King. Parliamentarism has evolved since 1884 and entails that the cabinet must not have the parliament against it, and that the appointment by the King is a formality. Stortinget, Oslo Enlarge Stortinget, Oslo
The Norwegian parliament, Stortinget, currently has 169 members (increased from 165, effective from the elections of 12 September 2005). The members are elected from the 19 counties for 4-year terms according to a system of proportional representation. The Storting divides itself into two chambers, the Odelsting and the Lagting when voting on legislation. Laws are proposed by the government through a Member of the Council of State or by a member of the Odelsting and decided on by the Odelsting and Lagting, in case of repeated disagreement by the joint Storting. However, in modern time the Lagting rarely disagrees and mainly just rubber-stamps the Odelsting's decision. Before the present Storting is a proposed constitutional amendment which would repeal the division.
Impeachment cases are very rare (the last being held in 1927 when prime minister Abraham Berge was acquitted) and may be brought against Members of the Council of State, or of the Supreme Court or of the Storting, for criminal offences which they may have committed in their official capacity. Indictments are raised by the Odelsting and judged by the Lagting and the Supreme Court justices as part of the High Court of the Realm. Apart from this, the Storting functions as a unicameral parliament.
The regular courts include the Supreme Court or Høyesterett (17 permanent judges and a chief justice), courts of appeal, city and district courts, and conciliation councils. Judges attached to regular courts are appointed by the King in council after nomination by the Ministry of Justice. The special High Court of the Realm, which consists of the Supreme Court plus the Lagting, hears impeachment cases.
In order to form a government, more than half (currently at least 10 out of 19 members) of the Council of State are required to belong to the Church of Norway. [edit]
Human rights in Norway
Norway has mandatory military service of twelve months for men between the ages of 18 (17 with parental consent) and 44. Conscientious objectors serve 13 months in an alternative civilian national service. If a candidate refuses to attend the check-up ("sesjon") they are liable to prosecution.
Freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of press are set forth by the constitution. The press is not censored, but most editors adhere to self-imposed commandments of caution ("Vær Varsom-plakaten"). Public radio and TV broadcast mostly without interference from the government, although permission to broadcast depends on the program spectrum.
The use of swastika is forbidden by penal code 135a. Those who express themselves by raising the swastika can be punished with fines or prison sentence ranging up to a maximum of three years. [2]
Practicing homosexuality was legalized in 1972. [edit]
Subdivisions
Main article: Subdivisions of Norway
Map of Norway Enlarge Map of Norway
Norway is divided into 19 administrative regions, called fylker (singular fylke) and 431 kommuner (singular kommune). Fylke and kommune are officially translated to English as county and municipality. The fylke is the intermediate administration between state and municipality. Note: The 19 fylker might be replaced with 5 - 9 larger regions by 2010.
The counties of Norway are:
* Akershus * Aust-Agder * Buskerud * Finnmark * Hedmark * Hordaland * Møre og Romsdal * Nordland * Nord-Trøndelag * Oppland * Oslo * Østfold * Rogaland * Sogn og Fjordane * Sør-Trøndel ag * Telemark * Troms * Vest-Agder * Vestfold
See also Regions of Norway. [edit]
Norway's ten largest municipalities
With population as of January 1, 2006 (source: SSB[3])
Reine, Lofoten, seen from top of Reinebringen (June, 2003). Enlarge Reine, Lofoten, seen from top of Reinebringen (June, 2003).
The landscape is generally rugged and mountainous, topped by glaciers, and its coastline of over 83,000 kilometres (51,575 mi) [4] is punctuated by steep-sloped inlets known as fjords, as well as a multitude of islands and islets. The Northern part of the country is also known as the Land of the Midnight Sun because of its northern location, north of the Arctic Circle, where for part of each summer the sun does not set, and in winter much of its land remains dark for long periods. The southern part is not known for this, however in summertime, the sun is only away for a few hours.
Norway is bounded for its entire length by seas of the North Atlantic Ocean: the North Sea to the southwest and its large inlet the Skagerrak to the south, the Norwegian Sea to the west, and the Barents Sea to the northeast. To the east, in order from south to north, it shares a long border with Sweden, a shorter one with Finland, and a still shorter one with Russia. Norway's highest point is the Galdhøpiggen at 2,469 metres (8,100 ft). With a maximum depth of 514 metres (1,686 ft), Hornindalsvatnet is Norway's and Europe's deepest lake.
The Norwegian climate is fairly temperate, especially along the coast under the influence of the Gulf Stream. The inland climate can be more severe and to the north more subarctic conditions are found, especially in Finnmark.
Climate data for some cities in different regions of the country; base period 1961-1990 (temperatures are 24hr average): Location Elevation Temp/Jan Temp/July Temp/year Precip/year (m) (ft) (°C) (°F) (°C) (°F) (°C) (°F) (mm) (in) Blindern (Oslo) 94 m 308 ft −4.3°C 24.2°F 16.4°C 61.5°F 5.7°C 42.2°F 763 mm 30.0 in Florida (Bergen) 12 m 39.4 ft 1.3°C 34.4°F 14.3°C 57.7°F 7.6°C 45.7°F 2,250 mm 88.6 in Værnes (Trondheim) 12 m 39.4 ft -3.4°C 25.9°F 13.7°C 56.7°F 5.0°C 41.0°F 892 mm 35.1 in Langnes (Tromsø) 8 m 26.2 ft -3.8°C 25.2°F 11.8°C 53.2°F 2.9°C 37.0°F 1,000 mm 39.4 in
Data from Norges Meteorologiske Institutt (Norwegian Meteorological Institute). Note: Temperatures have tended to be higher in recent years (see main article). Norwegian Meteorological Institute: The climate of Norway [edit]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Norway
Henningsvær, a fishing village in Lofoten during fishing season (April, 2001). Enlarge Henningsvær, a fishing village in Lofoten during fishing season (April, 2001).
The Norwegian economy is a prosperous bastion of social capitalism, featuring a combination of free market activity and government intervention. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector. The control mechanisms over the petroleum resources is a combination of state ownership in major operators in the Norwegian fields (Statoil ca 70% in 2005, Norsk Hydro 43% in 2004) while specific taxes on oil-profits for all operators are set to 78%, finally the government controls licencing of exploration and production of fields. The country is richly endowed with natural resources - petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals - and has obtained one of the highest standards of living in the world partly from petroleum production; in 2004, oil and gas accounted for 50% of exports. Only Saudi Arabia and Russia export more oil than Norway, which is not a member of OPEC. The last 25 years, the Norwegian economy has shown various signs of the economic phenomenon called Dutch disease.
Norway opted to stay out of the European Union during a referendum in 1972, and again in November 1994. However, Norway, together with Iceland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland, participates in the EU's single market via the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement.
In 2000 the government sold one-third of the then 100% state-owned oil company Statoil. The economic growth was 0.8% in 1999, 2.7% in 2000, and 1.3% in 2001. After little growth in 2002 and 2003, the economy expanded more rapidly in 2004.
In response to concerns about oil and gas reserve depletions, Norway has adopted measures to save its oil-boosted budget surpluses in a Government Petroleum Fund, which is invested abroad and at the end of the fourth quarter of 2005 was valued at 210 billion US dollars. Economic controls related to oil sales are avoided by controlling oil supply.
Recent research shows early evidence of massive amounts of coal beneath the oil-reserves on the continental shelf of Norway. A rough estimate has been given at 3×1012 tonnes of coal of unknown quality in these reserves. In comparison, the currently known coal reserves for the entire world is estimated at 0.9×1012 tonnes. The coal is terribly inaccessible today, but there are realistic hopes that it can be accessed in the future. This research was done by graduate students of NTNU and researchers at SINTEF in Trondheim [5].
Animal rights and anti-whaling groups have commented that given Norway's economic position it is paradoxical that this is one of a very small number of countries actively engaged in, and favouring the continuation of, commercial whaling. This is despite the argued negligible contribution that whaling makes to the economy, and despite opposition from around the world ([6]). Many supporters of whaling agree that its macroeconomic importance is negligible, but hold that the livelihood of individuals and small firms depend on it and that sustainable development depends on human harvesting of all non-endangered species ([7]). Norway's whaling today is limited to the Minke Whale, which also accounts for more than 90% of the catch in Norwegian waters since the 1920's ([8]). [edit]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Norway
The Norwegian population is about 4.6 million and increases by 0.4% per year (estimate July 2004). Ethnically most Norwegians are Nordic / North Germanic, while small minorities in the north are Sami or Finnish (see also Kven). The Sami are considered an indigenous people and traditionally live in the Northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. The largest concentration of Sami people is, however, found in Norway's capital Oslo.
In recent years, immigration has accounted for more than half the population growth, and 7.9% of the population are immigrants as of 1 January 2005. The largest immigrant groups are Pakistanis, Swedes, Danes, Iraqis, Vietnamese and Somalis. (Here, immigrants are defined as persons with two foreign-born parents [9].)
Approximately 86% of Norway's inhabitants are members of the state church, the Evangelic Lutheran Church of Norway. Other Christian denominations total about 4.5% (the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church, the Roman Catholic Church, Pentecostal congregations, the Methodist Church, etc). Among other religions, Islam is the largest in Norway with about 1.5%, and other religions comprise less than 1% each, (including Judaism; see Jews in Norway). About 1.5% adhere to the secular Human Ethical Union. As of 1 January 2003 approximately 5% of the population are unaffiliated ([10]).
The Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. They have officially equal status, i.e. they are both used in public administration, in schools, churches, and on radio and television, but Bokmål is used by the majority. Around 95 percent of the population speak Norwegian as their native tongue, although many speak dialects that differ significantly from the written language. Nevertheless, all of the Norwegian dialects are interintelligible. Several Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by the Sami people. The Germanic Norwegian language and the Finno-Ugric Sami languages are entirely unrelated. However, the Finnish language bears some similarities to the Sami language. [edit]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Norway
Famous Norwegians include the playwrights/novelists Baron Ludvig Holberg and Henrik Ibsen, explorers Roald Amundsen, Fridtjof Nansen, and Thor Heyerdahl, expressionist painter Edvard Munch and the sculptor Gustav Vigeland and romanticist composer Edvard Grieg. The playwright/novelists Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Knut Hamsun and Sigrid Undset have all won the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1903, 1920 and 1928 respectively.
Norwegians celebrate their national day on May 17, Constitution Day. Many people wear bunad (traditional costumes) and most participate in or watch the 17 May parade through the towns. Henrik Wergeland was the founder of the 17 May parade. These parades differ markedly from those of many other countries in that, rather than the military parades of, for example, France, they consist of children.
* Music of Norway * Norse mythology * Norwegian films * Norwegian Theatres
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International rankings
* GDP per capita - 2nd of 232 countries - 2006 * Human Development Index - 1st of 177 countries - 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002, 2001 * Index of Economic Freedom - 29th of 155 countries * Reporters Without Borders Worldwide press freedom index - 1st of 166 countries 2005, 2004, 2003, 2002 * Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers 2004 Children's Index: Rank 1, Women's Index: Rank 6, Mother's Index: Rank 6 (119 countries) * Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2004 - 8th of 145 countries * World Economic Forum: Global Competitiveness Report 2005-2006 - 9th of 117 countries
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See also
* Architecture of Norway * Norwegian photography * Holidays in Norway * Infrastructure in Norway o Car numberplates in Norway o Communications o Power supply o Transportation * Foreign relations of Norway * Military of Norway * List of cities in Norway * List of national parks of Norway * List of Norwegian companies * List of Norwegian language radio stations * List of Norwegian newspapers * List of Norwegian television channels * List of Norwegians * List of schools in Norway * Norwegian literature * Norwegian national football team * Norwegian Premier League * Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund * Regions of Norway * Tourism in Norway * Cuisine of Norway * Philharmonic Orchestras in Norway o Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra o Oslo Philharmonic Orchestra * Speidernes Fellesorganisasjon * Norway and the European Union
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External links Find more information on Norway by searching Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews
* Norway.info - Norway - the Official site * Minifacts about Norway from Statistics Norway * ODIN Information from the Government and Ministries * Official site of the Parliament (Stortinget) * The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway * The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav * Official site of the Royal House * Official website for the Norwegian Embassy in Washington, DC * Norway.no - Official portal * Translated Norwegian legislation * The Norwegian Constitution in English * Sources to Legal Information in Norway * Norges Bank - current notes and coins * The Central Bank of Norway * Public holidays in Norway * Searchable map of Norway * The Norwegian court system * WTO: Trade Policy Review: Norway * Study In Norway * BBC Country Profile: Norway * CIA Fact book: Norway
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Maintainer: Mozilla Foundation Stable release: 1.5.0.2 (April 13, 2006) [+/-] Preview release: Bon Echo Alpha 1 (2.0a1)(branch builds) and Minefield (3.0a1)(trunk builds) (daily) [+/-] OS: Cross-platform Genre: Web browser License: MPL, MPL/GPL/LGPL tri-license Website: www.mozilla.com/firefox
Mozilla Firefox is a free, open source, cross-platform, graphical web browser developed by the Mozilla Corporation and hundreds of volunteers.[1] The browser began as a fork of the Navigator component of the Mozilla Application Suite; Firefox has since become the foundation's main development focus (along with its Thunderbird mail and news client), and has replaced the Mozilla Suite as their official main software release.
Before its 1.0 release, Firefox had already gained acclaim from numerous media outlets, including Forbes[2] and the Wall Street Journal.[3] With over 25 million downloads in the 99 days after the initial 1.0 release, Firefox became one of the most downloaded free and open source applications, especially among home users.[4] On October 19, 2005, Firefox had its 100 millionth download, just 344 days after the release of version 1.0.[5] Firefox 1.5 was released on November 29, 2005, with more than 2 million downloads within the first 36 hours.
Firefox includes an integrated pop-up blocker, tabbed browsing, live bookmarks, support for open standards, and an extension mechanism for adding functionality. Although other browsers have introduced these features, Firefox became the first such browser to achieve wide adoption.
Firefox has attracted attention as an alternative to other browsers such as Microsoft Internet Explorer. As of January 2006, estimates suggest that Firefox's usage share is around 10% of overall browser usage (see market adoption below), with its highest usage in Finland (nearly 40% as of January 2006).
On March 21, 2006, Mozilla released the first alpha version of Firefox 2.0 under the name of Bon Echo Alpha 1, with all Firefox branding, including icons, removed to discourage end-users from downloading it. [6]
History
For more details on this topic, see History of Mozilla Firefox.
Dave Hyatt and Blake Ross began working on the Firefox project as an experimental branch of the Mozilla project. They believed that the commercial requirements of Netscape's sponsorship and developer-driven feature creep compromised the utility of the Mozilla browser. To combat what they saw as the Mozilla Suite's software bloat, they created a pared-down browser, with which they intended to replace the Mozilla Suite.
Mozilla Firefox retains the cross-platform nature of the original Mozilla browser by using the XUL user interface markup language. Through Firefox's support of XUL, users may extend their browser's capabilities by applying themes and extensions. Initially, these add-ons raised security concerns, so with the release of Firefox 0.9, the Mozilla Foundation opened Mozilla Update, a website containing themes and extensions "approved" as not harmful.
The Mozilla Foundation had intended to make the Mozilla Suite obsolete and to replace it with Firefox. On March 10, 2005, the Foundation announced that official releases of Mozilla would cease with the 1.7.x series. The Foundation continues to maintain the 1.7.x branch because of its continued use by many corporate users, and due to the fact that producers of other software continue to include the product. The Mozilla community (as opposed to the Foundation) will release the next version. These community releases will be called SeaMonkey, and will start out at version 1.0 to avoid any possible confusion for organizations or people still wanting to use the original Mozilla Suite. The Mozilla Foundation will continue giving support (such as CVS hosting) for the Mozilla community developers. [edit]
Naming
The project which became Firefox started as an experimental branch of the Mozilla Suite called m/b (or mozilla/browser). When sufficiently developed, binaries for public testing appeared in September 2002 under the name Phoenix.
The Phoenix name survived until April 14, 2003, when it changed due to trademark issues with the BIOS manufacturer, Phoenix Technologies (who produce a BIOS-based browser called Phoenix FirstWare Connect). The new name, Firebird, provoked mixed reactions, particularly since the free database software Firebird uses the same name. In late April, following an apparent name change to Firebird browser for a few hours, the Mozilla Foundation stated that the browser should always bear the name Mozilla Firebird in order to avoid confusion with the Firebird database server. However, continuing pressure from the FLOSS community forced another change, and on February 9, 2004, Mozilla Firebird became Mozilla Firefox (or Firefox for short).
The Mozilla Foundation chose the name "Firefox" for its similarity to "Firebird", but also for its uniqueness in the computing industry. To avoid any potential further name changes, the Mozilla Foundation began the process of registering Firefox as a trademark with the United States Patent and Trademark Office in December 2003.[7] As "Firefox" already existed as a registered trademark in the United Kingdom, the Mozilla Foundation licensed the name from the trademark's owner. [edit]
Branding and visual identity Various logos used during the development of Firefox Enlarge Various logos used during the development of Firefox
The adoption of a new visual identity marks one of Firefox's most visible enhancements from its previous versions. Some people have noted that free software frequently suffers from poor icon and user interface design and from a lack of a strong visual identity. Such opinion held that the early releases of Firefox sported "reasonable" visual designs, but did not regard them as of a standard equivalent to many "professionally" ; released software packages. The release of Firefox 0.8 in February 2004 saw the introduction of new branding efforts, including new icons. Jon Hicks designed the icon for Firefox 0.8 and up.
The logo depicts a stylized fox, since the Red Panda (to which the term "Firefox" originally referred [8]) did not "conjure up the right imagery" for Hicks.[9] The specific logo won selection because it makes an impression, while still not "shouting" with overdone artwork.
The Firefox icon functions as a trademark used to designate the official Mozilla build of the Firefox software. Although Firefox uses open source core software, free licensing does not extend to the artwork. For this reason, software distributors who distribute patched or modified versions of Firefox cannot use the Firefox icon. [edit]
Release history New options window from Firefox 1.5 Enlarge New options window from Firefox 1.5
Firefox has developed considerably since its first release as Phoenix on September 23, 2002. Pre-1.0 releases suffered many issues with extensions, as the code for handling them changed from version to version.
Throughout its development, Firefox versions have had internal codenames. These have a basis in real locations, with codenames such as Three Kings, Royal Oak, One Tree Hill, Mission Bay, and Greenlane all referencing suburbs in Auckland, New Zealand, and the name Whangamata coming from a small seaside town on the Coromandel Peninsula, southeast of Auckland in New Zealand. Ben Goodger, the lead developer of Firefox, who grew up in Auckland, chose these codenames. The other codenames included in the Firefox roadmap derive from an actual roadmap of a journey through California to Phoenix, Arizona, United States.[10]
Several builds codenamed "Deer Park" were released in 2005. According to Goodger, "Deer Park is not Deer Park, Victoria, but just a symbolic name. I was riding LIRR a few weeks ago and saw the name go by and I thought it sounded nice." Therefore, this name probably references Deer Park, New York, a CDP on Long Island, United States.
"Deer Park" was originally destined to become Firefox 1.1. However, Mozilla Foundation decided to change the version number of the next major release from "1.1" to "1.5", since it contained more new features than originally planned. In an attempt to dissuade end-users from downloading the preview versions, "Deer Park" versions do not use the standard Mozilla Firefox branding. As of the release of Firefox 1.5.0.2 on March 8, 2006, Deer Park 1.6a1[11] is the only 64-bit version of Firefox, though it is still in alpha and is quite buggy. On November 29, 2005, Firefox 1.5 was officially released. Some of the changes:
* An improved Software Update System that will ease distribution of important security patches and help keep users up-to-date.[12] * Firefox supports a subset of SVG, but not any of the official profiles (Tiny, Basic, Full). This makes Firefox the second major browser to support some form of SVG natively (Opera 8.0, released on April 19, 2005 supports most of the SVG 1.1 Tiny Specification). See Firefox 1.5's SVG status page, or to see SVG in action visit the SVG repository. * Support for the non-standard HTML canvas element. * A new, reorganized options dialog box for changing settings of the browser (similar to preferences windows in Mac OS X). * A "Clear Private Data" action to allow a person to clear their privacy related information without manually clicking the "Clear All" button. Users will have the option of clearing all privacy-related settings simply by exiting the browser or by using a keyboard shortcut, depending on their settings. * Gecko 1.8, an updated version of Firefox's rendering engine * Firefox 1.5 also includes a backlog of bug fixes that were fixed between the 0.9 and the 1.0 release which were previously unavailable due to branching from the trunk around the 0.9 release.
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Future development
According to the roadmap, future Firefox development will include version 2.0 and version 3.0. Development for version 2.0 will occur on the 1.8 branch from which version 1.5 was released, with release coming off of the yet-to-be-created 1.8.1 branch, while development on version 3.0 occurs simultaneously on the Mozilla trunk. Mozilla is developing versions 2.0 and 3.0 simultaneously in order to ship front-end innovation in version 2.0 built on a more stable back-end, while completing major architectural changes for version 3.0. [13]
Goals for Firefox include:[14]
* New "Places" interface for Bookmark and History * Tabbed browsing improvements * Specific options per site * Extension system enhancements * Find Toolbar, Software Update, Search enhancements * Accessibility compliance * Session Restore * Download resuming across browser sessions, detection of signed executables * Improvements to the search service * Anti-phishing features * Cairo as the rendering layer instead of GDI+
Mozilla Firefox 1.5 and future releases of Camino will also include the Java Embedding plugin,[15] which allow Mac OS X users to run Java applets with the latest 1.4 and 5.0 versions of Java (the default Java software shipped by Apple is not compatible with any browser, except its own Safari). [edit]
Version 2.0
The development name for Mozilla Firefox 2.0 is Bon Echo.
The alpha (2.0a1) version became available on March 21, 2006, and, according to Mozilla, is aimed primarily at the developer and testing community. There are still some bugs present and it is not feature-complete, so any downloads of Bon Echo should be taken with a grain of salt. Among the additions to the Bon Echo Alpha browser according to Mozilla are:
* Changes to tabbed browsing behavior * "Places" - New data storage layer for bookmarks and history (using SQLite) * Extended search plugin format and new management user interface * Updates to the extension system to provide enhanced security and to allow for easier localization of extensions * Support for SVG text using svg:textPath
"Bon Echo", like other Firefox development names, is the name of a public park: Bon Echo Provincial Park. The name translates to "Good Echo." [edit]
Features
For more details on this topic, see Features of Mozilla Firefox.
The developers of Firefox aim to produce a browser that "just works" for most casual users. Those interested can add (as extensions and plugins) many features not packaged with Firefox. [edit]
Usability and accessibility Screenshot of performing "Find as you type". The user typed "ency" and the browser highlighted the first matched text found with green. Enlarge Screenshot of performing "Find as you type". The user typed "ency" and the browser highlighted the first matched text found with green.
Developers put in a large amount of work towards simplifying Firefox's user interface. As a result, the interface appears less cluttered than that of many other internet suites. The design of Firefox's option panels leaves many of the infrequently used options found in the Mozilla Suite not visible in Firefox.
Firefox supports tabbed browsing, which allows users to open multiple web pages in the same browser window. This feature originated in the Mozilla Suite, which in turn had borrowed the feature from the popular MultiZilla extension for Mozilla. Firefox also belongs in the group of browsers which were first to adopt customizable pop-up blocking. It also supports various forms of keyboard navigation such as tabbing navigation and caret navigation (and in some builds, spatial navigation).
Firefox 1.5 (Windows version) is also the first browser to meet US federal government requirements that software be easily accessible to users with physical impairments.
The browser has a number of features which help users find information. First, Firefox has an incremental find feature known as "find as you type". With this feature enabled, a user can simply begin typing a word while viewing a web page, and Firefox automatically searches for it and highlights the first instance found. As the user types more of the word, Firefox refines its search. Also, if the user's exact query does not appear anywhere on the page, the "Find" box turns red.
Firefox also sports a built-in search toolbar with an extensible search engine listing. By default, Firefox allows users to search Google, Yahoo!, Amazon.com, Creative Commons, Dictionary.com, and eBay. Users may download more search plugins (including one for Wikipedia) from the Mycroft project or remove any unwanted ones.
Additionally, Firefox supports the "custom keyword" feature introduced by the Mozilla Suite. This feature allows users to access their bookmarks from the location bar using keywords (and an optional query parameter). For example, using a custom keyword, a user can type "google apple" into the address bar and be redirected to the results of a Google search for "apple". Custom keywords are provided "out of the box" for Google Search, Google Stock Search, Dictionary.com, Urban Dictionary and Wikipedia. When a user enters a keyword into the address bar that is not recognized by Firefox (for example, simply typing "apple"), it automatically redirects the user to the first result yielded by a Google search for the word (or words). [edit]
Customizability Mozilla Firefox's Software Install confirmation dialog Enlarge Mozilla Firefox's Software Install confirmation dialog Firefox with the Noia eXtreme theme Enlarge Firefox with the Noia eXtreme theme
The design of Firefox aims at high extensibility. Through extensions (installed via XPInstall modules), users may activate new features, such as mouse gestures, advertisement blocking, proxy server switching, and debugging tools. Many features formerly part of the Mozilla Suite, such as the ChatZilla IRC client and a calendar, have become Firefox extensions.
One can view the extension system as a ground for experimentation, where one can test new functionalities. Occasionally, an extension becomes part of the official product (for example tabbed browsing, a feature which proved popular through the MultiZilla extension, eventually became part of standard Mozilla).
Firefox also supports a variety of themes/skins, which change its appearance. Themes consist of packages of CSS and image files. The Mozilla Update web site offers many themes for downloading. Beyond adding a new theme, users can customize Firefox's interface by moving and manipulating its various buttons, fields, and menus, and likewise by adding and deleting entire toolbars.
A Firefox installation can keep all extensions and themes available on the Mozilla Update site up-to-date through Firefox's interface, which periodically checks for updates to installed themes and extensions.
Additionally, Firefox stores many hidden preferences that users can access by typing about:config in the address bar. This mechanism enables features such as single-window mode and error pages, or speeding up page rendering by various tweaks. Experimental features like HTTP pipelining often lurk hidden in the about:config menu. [edit]
Support for software standards
The Mozilla Foundation takes pride in Firefox's compliance with existing standards, especially W3C web standards. Firefox has extensive support for most basic standards including HTML, XML, XHTML, CSS, ECMAScript (JavaScript), DOM, MathML, DTD, XSL and XPath. As of March 2006, however, no Firefox release has succeeded in passing the rigorous Acid2 standards-compliance test, which has been passed so far only by the browsers Safari, Konqueror, Opera (9.0), and iCab, as well as the program Prince.
Firefox also supports PNG images and variable transparency.
Mozilla contributors constantly improve Firefox's support for existing standards. Firefox has already implemented most of CSS Level 2 and some of the not-yet-completed CSS Level 3 standard. Also, work continues on implementing standards currently missing such as APNG and XForms and improving support for SVG. Some of the Mozilla standards like XBL are also making their way to open standards (via WHATWG). [edit]
Cross-platform support Firefox running on Mac OS X with the MidnightFox theme. Enlarge Firefox running on Mac OS X with the MidnightFox theme. Firefox, running under the Linux operating system Enlarge Firefox, running under the Linux operating system Firefox, running on OS/2 - eComStation operating system Enlarge Firefox, running on OS/2 - eComStation operating system
Mozilla Firefox runs on a wide variety of platforms. Releases available on the primary distribution site support the following operating systems[16]:
* Various versions of Microsoft Windows, including 98, 98SE, Me, NT 4.0, 2000, XP, and Server 2003. A version for USB Smart Drives exists (see "Portable Firefox" below). * Mac OS X. Mozilla Firefox Version 1.5.0.2 was officially released as a universal binary. Various unofficial builds were created earlier, including one made by Apple programmers for the 2005 Worldwide Developers Conference. * Linux operating systems using X.Org Server or XFree86 - indeed it is now commonly shipped as the default web browser.
Firefox does not officially support Windows NT 3.51, nor Windows 95, but reportedly functions properly after the application of a few tweaks.[17]
Since the Mozilla Foundation makes the Firefox source code available, users can also compile and run Firefox on a variety of other architectures and operating systems. Operating systems not officially supported by the Mozilla developers, but known to run the browser include:
* Solaris (x86 and SPARC) * OS/2 and its successor, eComStation * AIX[18] * FreeBSD[19] * IRIX * NetBSD * OpenBSD * BeOS/Haiku * SkyOS * RISC OS (ARM)[20]
Builds for Windows XP Professional x64 Edition also exist.
Support under development for:
* Amiga
[edit]
Internationalization and localization
Contributors throughout the world have collaborated in translating the Firefox browser into many frequently used languages/locales, including some of the least often supported locales, such as Chichewa, but excluding Latvian, Malay, Arabic, Thai, Vietnamese, Hindi and Persian. Because of the use of DTD and property files for storing the string literals displayed to users, even users without a programming background can easily complete part of the internationalization and localization process, requiring only a simple text editor. [edit]
Web development tools DOM Inspector inspecting Wikipedia's main page Enlarge DOM Inspector inspecting Wikipedia's main page
Like the Mozilla Suite, Firefox comes with two web-development tools: a DOM Inspector and a JavaScript Console. Firefox fans claim that no other browser includes the DOM Inspector, and that Firefox's JavaScript Console surpasses the consoles available in other browsers. While not installed by default, the DOM Inspector becomes available via a "custom" install.
Firefox supports a number of extensions that assist in web development, including the powerful Venkman JavaScript debugger and the integrated web development toolkit named "Web Developer". [edit]
Other features
Powered by RSS or Atom feeds, live bookmarking, another feature of Firefox, allow users to dynamically monitor changes to their favorite news sources. When this feature was first introduced in version 1.0 PR, some users worried that Firefox was beginning to include non-essential features, and succumb to bloat, much like the Mozilla Suite. However, use of web feeds (RSS/Atom) has grown tremendously recently, making RSS-support an essential feature for a growing number of people.
Firefox also includes a customizable download manager. Users can configure the browser to either open downloaded files automatically or save them directly to the disk. By default, Firefox downloads all files to a user's desktop on Windows and Mac OS X or to the user's home directory on GNU/Linux, but users can easily configure it to prompt for a specific download location.
Mozilla Firefox also includes a search bar that can be used to search sites such as Wikipedia, Amazon.com, Ebay, Yahoo, Google, and many others. [edit]
Security
Some of Firefox's key security features include the use of the sandbox security model[21], same origin policy and external protocol whitelisting [22].
Open source advocates argue that an important characteristic of Firefox security lies in the fact that anyone can see its source code and that it therefore must rely upon sound security mechanisms rather than security through obscurity. At least one person besides the coder reviews proposed software changes, and typically yet another person carries out a "super-review". Once placed in the software, changes become visible for anyone else to consider, protest against, or improve.[23]
In addition, the Mozilla Foundation operates a "bug bounty" scheme: people who report a valid critical security bug receive a US$500 cash reward (for each report) and a Mozilla T-shirt.[24] According to the Mozilla Foundation, this "bug bounty" system aims to "encourage more people to find and report security bugs in our products, so that we can make our products even more secure than they already are."[25] Also, all users can have access to the source code of Mozilla Firefox, to the internal design documentation, to forum discussions, and to other materials that can help in finding bugs. Bug bounties have been paid out numerous times.[26]
The Mozilla Foundation has implemented a policy on security bugs in order to help contributors to deal with security vulnerabilities.[27] The policy restricts access to a security-related bug report to members of the security team until after Mozilla has shipped a fix for the problem. This approach aims to minimize the exploitation of publicly known vulnerabilities and to give the developers time to issue a patch. While similar to other "responsible disclosure" policies operated by software vendors such as Microsoft, this policy falls short of the full disclosure principle favored by some security researchers.
As of February 2006, Secunia has reported 2 unpatched vulnerabilities in Firefox 1.x (with the most serious one marked "less critical"). Another security source, SecurityFocus, reports no known vulnerabilities in Firefox 1.5.0.1. No publicly known attacks since its launch have been discovered. [edit]
Criticisms
Main article: Common criticisms of Mozilla Firefox
Firefox has at times attracted criticism for lacking features found in some other browsers. Many users observe that the developers have not implemented frequently requested features. (The developers state in response that they intend for Firefox to be a fairly minimal browser in order to reduce software bloat and bugs, while retaining a high degree of extensibility.) Most of these features, and many others, exist as installable Firefox extensions, or third-party software. However, not all users wish to install extensions for the features they want, preferring to see them included in the official software package. This difference of opinion was one of the motivating factors behind the development of the Flock browser, which is a Firefox fork.
Some note that Firefox takes longer to launch than other browsers such as Internet Explorer or Opera on Windows. The non-Windows-native XUL implementation of the user interface may be the cause of this perceived delay. Other Gecko-based browsers such as K-Meleon, which use platform-native user interface implementations, generally run faster than Firefox. IE also launches faster than Firefox on Windows, as many of its components are built into Windows and loaded at startup. It is quite possible that if Internet Explorer did not load its components during booting, it would probably be much slower to start than Firefox. A small percentage of users complain of Firefox using much more memory than other browsers. This has been reported as memory leaks [28]; Mozilla developers claim it is sometimes at least partially an effect of the fast backwards and forwards (FastBack) feature. [29] Another known frequent cause of memory leaks is misbehaving extensions, most notably Adblock.
Users switching from Internet Explorer sometimes find that certain websites do not render as expected in Firefox. One such website is MSN.com. MSN.com has been caught and criticised many times for deliberately sending broken and manipulated code to non Microsoft browsers to make them show MSN.com in a broken way, and thus causing the users of these non-Microsoft browsers to feel as if the problem lies with their browsers. Opera Software ASA exposed these tactics of MSN.com. Even now, MSN.com occasionally turns up broken on non-Microsoft browsers like Firefox or Opera, probably in an attempt to make their users switch to Internet Explorer. This is rarely a Firefox-specific problem, and is usually caused by the respective websites using code that does not adhere to W3C standards—such as code specific to Internet Explorer's quirks or utilizing ActiveX controls or VBScript scripts, which are both non-standard Microsoft technologies.
There is a firefox extension called "IE tab" that allows the Internet Explorer rendering engine to be embedded into firefox on the Windows platform. This solves rendering issues for certain pages that use Microsoft specific technologies. [edit]
Market adoption Usage share of Mozilla Firefox over time Enlarge Usage share of Mozilla Firefox over time Firefox's Rise in Europe: Mar 2005 vs Jan 2006 Enlarge Firefox's Rise in Europe: Mar 2005 vs Jan 2006 A graph of Firefox 1.0 cumulative downloads, created by Asa Dotzler Enlarge A graph of Firefox 1.0 cumulative downloads, created by Asa Dotzler [edit]
Usage share
Statistics reference: Usage share of web browsers
Web-surfers have adopted Firefox rapidly, despite the dominance of Internet Explorer in the browser market. According to several sources (as listed in statistics reference), by January 2006, Firefox had around 10% of global usage share.
Europe, according to a study released by the firm XiTi on 2006-01-08, generally had higher percentages of Firefox use, with an average of 20%. [edit]
Download count
Cumulative downloads increased in a near-linear fashion during the first quarter of 2005. In other words, the download rate remained fairly stable. None of the Mozilla Foundation's previous product releases experienced that kind of growth. Downloads of Firefox 1.x since November 9, 2004 Date Number of days Downloads (millions) References November 10, 2004 1 1 1,000,000+ downloads on day 1 February 16, 2005 99 25 firefox 25,000,000 April 29, 2005 171 50 celebrating 50 million firefox downloads October 19, 2005 344 100 firefox hits one hundred million downloads March 3, 2006 479 150 150 million and counting! Downloads of Firefox 1.5.x since November 29, 2005 Date Number of days Downloads (millions) References November 30, 2005 1.5 2 more than two million January 24, 2006 56 20 Firefox 1.5 passes 20 million mark
These download counts did not include downloads using software updates and downloads from third-party websites. The download counter is available as an RSS feed, so that the Firefox download can be added on websites to keep track of the number of downloads in near-realtime.
It should be noted that a download count is not a user count, as a single download can be installed over many machines, or one person can download the software multiple times. [edit]
Spread Firefox campaigns
Main article: Spread Firefox
The rapid adoption of Firefox apparently accelerated in part due to a series of aggressive community-marketing campaigns since 2004. For example, Blake Ross and Asa Dotzler organized a series of events dubbed "marketing week".
On September 14, 2004, a community-marketing portal dubbed "Spread Firefox" (SFX) debuted along with the Firefox Preview Release, creating a centralized space for the discussion of various marketing techniques. The portal enhanced the "Get Firefox" button program, giving users "referrer points" as an incentive. The site lists the top 250 referrers. From time to time, the SFX team or SFX members launch marketing events organized at the Spread Firefox website. [edit]
Organization adoption
During the FOSDEM 2005 conference, Tristan Nitot, the president of Mozilla Europe, said that he knew "a few companies" that had deployed the Firefox browser or the Thunderbird mail client across a million seats. Those companies remained reluctant to publicize the migration, due to in-house concerns that this might damage their relationship with Microsoft.[30]
According to a CNET article published on May 12, 2005, about 30,000 of IBM's staff (about 10% of the total) already use Firefox. IBM encourages its employees to use Firefox as the company's standard web browser, with support from the company's help desk staff.
The Networking Services and Information Technology department of the University of Chicago started to include both Firefox and Thunderbird in its connectivity package for all incoming students on the third quarter of 2005.[31]
Boston College and Kansas State University recently adopted Firefox as official web browsers across the campus network. BC encourages all students to switch over from Internet Explorer to Firefox on all student dorm computers, citing increased usability and better security features.
In December 2005, it was announced that Dell UK were to start shipping the Firefox browser pre-installed on their PCs. [32] [edit]
Industry adoption
Since the pre-1.0 stages, a number of well-known websites and web applications, including Gmail, have supported (and in some cases, required) the use of Firefox. Since March 30, 2005, the Google search engine has utilized the link prefetching feature of Firefox for faster searching. (Link prefetching involves a standards-compliant optimization technique that utilizes the browser's idle time to download or prefetch documents that the user might visit in the near future.) Google, Inc. also recommends Firefox as the browser for its Blogger.com weblog service.[33] On May 18, 2005, eBay announced support for Firefox for its eBay Picture Manager.[34]
Search engine companies including Google, Yahoo! and A9.com now also offer Firefox extensions for accessing their services, in addition to their original Internet-Explorer add-ons. Google released two new Google Extensions for Firefox on December 14, 2005, further affirming the company's interest in Firefox.
A number of commercialized versions of the Firefox browser have developed outside the not-for-profit Mozilla Foundation. The current version of Netscape, known as Netscape Browser or Netscape 8, combines the functionalities of Firefox and Internet Explorer. And a start-up, Flock (formerly Round Two, MozSource and more formerly E-Flo), plans to build enhancements for Firefox.[35] Firefox is also used by the 3B browser, which browses the web as a 3D city of web sites or a 3D store. [edit]
Portable Firefox
Portable Firefox is a repackaged version of Firefox designed to run from a USB flash drive, iPod, external hard drive or any other portable media. It arose out of a mozillaZine thread in June of 2004. John T. Haller released the first packaged version and then led development from there. It includes a specialized launcher that adjusts extensions and themes to work as they are moved from computer to computer. It used to use compression (courtesy of UPX and 7-Zip) however this caused problems with the update engine included in version 1.5 and was therefore scrapped.
Haller has also started development work on Portable Firefox Live, which aims to run on CD-R or other read-only media. A number of applications are already using Portable Firefox Live to deliver a browser and HTML-based content from CD.
The full distribution of Firefox has been built and runs on the Sharp Zaurus Linux-based PDA platform under the pdaxrom environment. [edit]
Opinions and responses
Despite Firefox's apparent gains on Internet Explorer, Microsoft head of Australian operations, Steve Vamos, stated that he did not see Firefox as a threat and that there was not significant demand for the featureset of Firefox amongst Microsoft's users. Vamos stated that he himself never used it personally.[36] Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates has used Firefox, but he has commented that "so much software gets downloaded all the time, but do people actually use it?"[37]
However, according to a Microsoft SEC Filing on June 30, 2005, it acknowledged that browsers such as Mozilla are competitive threats to Internet Explorer: "Competitors such as Mozilla offer software that competes with the Internet Explorer Web browsing capabilities of our Windows operating system products."[38] [edit]
Footnotes
1. ↑ Mozilla contributors list, Mozilla.org 2. ↑ Forbes, September 29, 2004. 3. ↑ Wall Street Journal, September 16, 2004. Walter Mossberg wrote : "I suggest dumping Microsoft's Internet Explorer Web browser, which has a history of security breaches. I recommend instead Mozilla Firefox, which is free at www.mozilla.org. It's not only more secure but also more modern and advanced, with tabbed browsing, which allows multiple pages to be open on one screen, and a better pop-up ad blocker than the belated one Microsoft recently added to IE." 4. ↑ Stross, New York Times. December 19, 2004. The article states that "With Firefox, open-source software moves from back-office obscurity to your home, and to your parents', too. (Your children in college are already using it.)" 5. ↑ Mozilla Firefox Download Counts 6. ↑ Mozilla Firefox 2.0a1 Bon Echo. Bon Echo 7. ↑ Firefox trademark, USPTO 8. ↑ Mozilla Firefox - Brand Name Frequently Asked Questions. Mozilla.org 9. ↑ Branding Firefox. John Hicks' weblog 10. ↑ Mozilla Firefox Roadmap (see also: Mozilla Firefox 1.0 Roadmap) 11. ↑ Ben Goodger discusses the Firefox update system (May 2, 2005). 12. ↑ 1.8 alpha 6 around the corner (December 26, 2004). Source: Asa Dotzler's weblog. 13. ↑ Mozilla Wiki. [39]. A table that lists and links the intended features for Firefox 2. 14. ↑ Mozilla to include Java Embedding plugin. MozillaZine. 15. ↑ Firefox System Requirements. Mozilla.org. 16. ↑ Run Firefox in Windows 95 (and Windows 98 original release). Source: John Haller's website. Details a procedure to install Firefox on Windows 95 and the original release of Windows 98. 17. ↑ Firefox release notes for the 1.x series. Mozilla.org. 18. ↑ FreshPort entry on Firefox. freshports.org. 19. ↑ Firefox Port to RISC OS project page 20. ↑ Extensions, however, are not sandboxed at all. After installation, they have full access to the operating system (with the user's privilege level) via XPCOM-interfaces. 21. ↑ External Protocol Whitelisting. Neil Turner's weblog. 22. ↑ Hacking Mozilla. Mozilla.org. 23. ↑ Mozilla Security Bug Bounty Program. Mozilla.org. 24. ↑ Mozilla Security Bug Bounty FAQ. Mozilla.org. 25. ↑ (March 31, 2005). Mozilla Pays Bug Bounty. InformationWeek. 26. ↑ Handling Mozilla Security Bugs. Mozilla.org. 27. ↑ Firefox 1.5: Not Ready For Prime Time?. InternetWeek. 28. ↑ Bug 319262 - Significant memory leak. Mozilla.org Bugzilla. 29. ↑ Firefox sneaks into the enterprise. ZDNet UK. 30. ↑ UChicago to Distribute Firefox and Thunderbird. Inside Aebrahim's Head. 31. ↑ Firefox shipping on Dell UK. blakeross.com. 32. ↑ Where can I upgrade my browser? Blogger Help. 33. ↑ eBay Picture Manager Enhancements. eBay. 34. ↑ Round Two looks to launch enhanced Firefox. MozillaNews. 35. ↑ Microsoft: Firefox does not threaten IE's market share. ZDNet. 36. ↑ The assault on software giant Microsoft. BBC News. 37. ↑ Firefox a threat. MozillaZine.
[edit]
References
* Goodger, Ben (2004). Mozilla Firefox Development Charter. Retrieved September 22, 2004. * Hesseldahl, Arik (September 29, 2004).Better Browser Now the Best. Forbes. * Markham, Gervase (November 30, 2004). Firefox Language Coverage. Hacking for Christ. * Mossberg, Walter S. (September 16, 2004). How to Protect Yourself From Vandals, Viruses If You Use Windows. Wall Street Journal. * Schmidt, Jürgen (July 13, 2005). Chrome-plated holes. Mozilla's security concept is not invincible c't magazine 14/2005, page 202. * Stross, Randall (December 19, 2004). The Fox Is in Microsoft's Henhouse (and Salivating). New York Times. * Weber, Tim (May 9, 2005). The assault on software giant Microsoft. BBC News.
[edit]
Books
* Granneman, Scott. Don't Click on the Blue E!: Switching to Firefox. O'Reilly (2005), ISBN 0-596-00939-9. * Hofmann, Chris, Marcia Knous, & John Hedtke. Firefox and Thunderbird Garage. Prentice Hall PTR (2005), ISBN 0131870041. * McFarlane, Nigel. Firefox Hacks. O'Reilly (2005), ISBN 0-596-00928-3. * Reyes, Mel. Hacking Firefox : More Than 150 Hacks, Mods, and Customizations. Wiley (2005), ISBN 0-7645-9650-0. * Yeow, Cheah Chu. Firefox Secrets: A Need-To-Know Guide. O'Reilly (2005), ISBN 0-9752402-4-2.
[edit]
See also
Portal:Free software Free software Portal
* Mozilla (from which the Firefox project descends) * Mozilla Thunderbird e-mail application * Mozilla Sunbird calendar application and personal information manager * Mozilla Update * Mozilla Foundation * Mozilla Corporation * Comparison of web browsers * List of web browsers * List of computer term etymologies * List of Firefox extensions
[edit]
External links Wikibooks Wikibooks has more about this subject: Mozilla Firefox Wikinews Wikinews has news related to: Mozilla
* Mozilla Firefox homepage – For end-users. * Mozilla Firefox with Google toolbar – For end-users. * Mozilla Firefox project page – For developers. * SpreadFirefox * Firefox section of the MozillaZine Knowledge Base * Collection of all Firefox Extensions * Portable Firefox * Firefox extensions / add-ons * Firefox Extensions Guide Extensions for users and developers and some useful hacks. * The Burning Edge – Developments in nightly builds of Mozilla Firefox. * FireFix - Automates the process of downloading and installing the latest Mac-compatible Firefox Nightly build and creates a backup copy of the previously installed build. (Mac OS X-only) * Secunia advisories for Mozilla Firefox * Mozilla "Deer Park" 64-bit Firefox-based web browser
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Last year Sony Ericsson launched the k750i/w800i series. These phones had pretty much everything that you could ask for in a relatively small form factor. Some people said they looked ugly and boring and some people were mad cause Sony Ericsson left out North America again! No 850 mhz model was to be seen.. Instead North America was greeted with a lovely J300a in PINK! WOOHOO!
Ever since Sony Ericsson has been pumping out Walkman phones and finally announced the W810i
I honestly think that only the 850mhz users are really, really excited about this model. After all the k750i/w800i crowd may not see the reason to upgrade if they don’t use the 850mhz frequency. They’ve been using the k750i/w800i for about 6 months now. Even I’m not super excited about this since I’m Mr. Anti-850.(Meaning, phones are a hobby and as long as I get some decent coverage on 1900 I’m a happy camper)
But nevertheless it is a new toy to play with and that’s exciting enough and should hold me over till I get a new UIQ device to play with…or if Nokia would launch a series 60 device anytime soon…(cough cough N80) Anyways on with the review.
Main features # QUADBAND /edge # Fully functional mp3 player via WALKMAN interface # Excellent 2.0 mp camera with autofocus # Expandable memory up to 4 gigabyte (I think)
Now this is a prototype model so I guess there’s a chance that the final version may be different .. I don’t know though so don’t ask!
Also I’m only going to touch upon the main cosmetic changes and software changes everything else is pretty standard since we’ve all read enough k750i/w800i/w550i/w900i reviews by now.
Build Quality The build quality is solid, overall feels more together then the w800i, k750i I think it has to do mostly with the new dpad it gives a satisfying solid all around togetherness. For those of you that developed joystick issues, I’m happy to say that you should be happy with the dpad it’s very responsive and solid. (similar to the moto L7 dpad but the spacing is not as tight so there’s more room to maneuver) I still think the w550i is one of the best dpad designs ever.
The faceplate is a nice matte plastic that has an interesting feel to it. It’s not exactly rubber but feels not exactly plastiky.. no clue but it’s pretty good.
The funny tri-buttons on the left and right aren’t that great in my opinion. I much prefer separate keys.. I think it’s a bit ugly from a cosmetic aspect and the buttons feel a little squeezed together. The buttons are very distinct and I’m confident to say that you won’t push the wrong button but in general feels a little cramped.
Screen Well this was the first thing I noticed, the screen is different. It looks bigger and it’s signifigantly brighter then any Sony Ericsson screen I’ve ever seen. It’s bright like a Samsung D600. (too bright for my liking but you can turn it down.) I’d be keeping it’s brightness at about 60%.
The screen is definitely better then the k750i/w800i. It also looks physically bigger too but I can’t confirm that.
Call quality-call volume is a bit on the low side, it’s pretty clear, sounds like w600i but noticeably quieter.
Reception from what I’ve seen so far seems to be a solid performer.
User Interface Looks like a blend of the w550i/w900i.
The file manager has the separate folders from the w900 - Phone and card - Phone - Card
All the new icons for profiles are being used, it also supports that new flash lite stuff and seems to run faster then the w900i.
Something very neat that was incorporating into a flash lite them was that when you scrolled around the phone would vibe.. (exactly like the e398/ROKR E1 vibe thing)
Overall seems stable and fast.
Music - Walkman # Supports mp3 and mp4 playlists with artists. (w900i r5af firmware doesnot) # Has the new play all artists feature that’s not on the w800i # Does not have the stereo widening like the w600i # Sounds quality sounds the same as the w800i
However the speakers do sound nicer then the w800i. they’re not stereo but they produce a cleaner sound.
Camera The camera user interface does not have spotometry and autofocus with macromode like the w900i. It has the same camera user interface as the w800i which has autofocus and macromode separated.
Video Recording seems to be good, not as choppy as before I’d need more time to run through the FPS to see it it’s actually any good though. Records at 176x144 pixels resolution.
Conclusion Well I kinda ran out of things to talk about.. because it’s just a minor faceplate, User interface change with some madseeg 850mhz.. (I don’t do data so I can’t comment on EDGE). It’s a very solid product that should have been launched 8 months ago when they announced the k750i/w800i.
The dpad is great, the buttons remind me of the good ‘ole t610, so for anyone that’s been holding out cause they needed 850 this is the phone to get!!! I would strongly recommend it to everyone out there because I believe it has a lot of value. This is the phone that should convert every die-hard nokia/moto fan in my opinion (looks aside which is subjective) this phone is better then anything else it does more and it does it better then the 6270, L7, v3i but again this is my opinion and nothing else.
(I am concerned about the Sony Ericsson white screen of death (WSOD) that has been haunting it’s products so hopefully we would be hearing about firmware issues.)
Sony Ericsson better not try to rip people off though cause in my opinion this phone once released should be in the RM1750 range maybe lower.
As for me, I’m sure I’ll pick one up but probably once a carrier releases it mainly cause it’s improvements aren’t a must have for me. 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Physic and keypad The size of c2500 is quite small, can be easily held by girl or man. Case is made of the plastic and quite resist to the scratch, but not the screen area. It is advice to put a screen protector if you afraid to scratch the screen.
Feeling of pressing is ok, can be better as the feedback a bit hard after you press it. It is weird that the d-pad is only 4 way, you couldn't press the middle button as confirm or enter key.
Display As it is aimed for the budget consumer section, display is not as good as those higher end handphone like LG G262. But still it provides a good and well contrast display. While brightness is a bit too much, you can adjust the contrast level.
Screen resolution is at 128 x 110, quite low as compare to most of the color phone offered by Nokia, SonyEricsson, Samsung and others. As it is not the standard 128x128 that most other low end handphone out there, you got to cut the wallpaper properly in order to best fit the screen resolution,
Menu Menu are in standard 3x3 icon navigation, pretty standard for browsing through the menu. There is some inconvenient here at some of the menu navigation - For e.g. File Manager, Left Option button is Option, while right option button is Back, you just couldn't press the left button to straight away enter the File Manager but press the left bring you to see Open, create Folder and format. Yup, you read it right, you can format it. While it have confirm question after u press format, it is such a dangerous thing as user may press the button too fast and overlooks it. LG should utilise the Hang up button as back instead of right option button. Currently hang up button will bring you back to the main screen straight away.
My suggestion, Left option button is open straight away, while right option button provide options, just to prevent user press the format accidentally while maintain fast access to inner menu. Hang up button should act as back button instead of back to main screen, while long press the hang up can back to main screen, just my point.
Connectivity Some people may feel disappointed on this as it doesn't provide bluetooth nor infra-red connection. It makes sense that it is aim for the budget people. While it doesn't has those wireless connectivity but USB connection makes the MASS STORAGE as well as charge the handphone will do the job very well.
Transfer file is really an easy job at C2500, just plug in the USB cable, a message will be prompted out asking for either MASS Storage or COMM port connection. Comm port is for advance user to flash their handphone firmware while mass storage is let the handphone act as thumb drive (USB drive). By doing so, you can simply drag any file into your handphone. After connect using mass storage, a extra drive will be appeared at My Computer (If you using WinXP as it recognize it straight away). Just drag your mp3 file into the mp3 folder and other file into custom folder, just to make thing tidy. Bear in mind, while in either mode, you couldn't use your handphone as it will be by itself in order to enter the mode.
MP3, Tone and radio Listening thru the build in speaker is quite comfortable. Sound is quite loud, but not up to SonyEricsson Z550, that one is extremely loud I could say =D. While the midi tone is really loud, I suggest to set it as Loud profile ringtone as to avoid miss call. Mp3 and midi both can be set as Ringtone and Alarm tone, while message tone you got to get along with the build in tone, not too many. As for the keypad tone, there is one useful human voice tone which may be helpful for those people who have difficulty in small font reading.
For those who seeking for a radio on their handphone need not worry. C2500 bundle with a FM radio. Kind of convenient for those who feel bored with their mp3 and can simply shift to listen to FM radio. As usual, headset is used to act as the antenna.
There is the voice recorder for this handphone, nice to have.
Camera and Video It is strange if I tell you that LG didn't have camera with color handphone nowadays. Don't worry, it is there.. though not a mega pixel but rather a VGA camera. It is understandable that C2500 is for budget user, that's why VGA camera is for fun to take photo or to put as caller photo. But don't worry about the quality, it is on par with SonyEricsson K700i that I have. In fact, better while in close up shooting. I have taken some sample photos of that.
While there is no macro mode for this kind of budget phone, the word is blur but still readable on the sample photo that I had taken, a thumb up for this.
There are various resolution of photo can be taken. Namely 128x128, 160x120, 320x240, 640x480 with the quality selection between Low, Normal and High. Frames can be added into the photo while u shooting them. For those who like to do fine tuning on photo setting, there are different effect, Black & White, Sepia, Negative, B & W negative, etc and also White balance, EV value, night mode, banding and enough for you to spare some time on it.
Strange enough, I couldn't find a way to shoot video with C2500. There is simply on such option.
Message, MMS C2500 allow for a very long sms typing, up to 1224 characters and support for MMS. Creating MMS in C2500 is easy, just type your message, insert attachment (pictures, midi/tones), set recipients, there you go.
Voice and Network The signal reception is average. While using the handphone, you need to find a good position to put your ear near to the speaker hole, else you may hardly hear what the other party says. This is because the speaker hole is not located at the middle of the top part of headset, but slightly right. People may tend to put the middle of the headset near the ear, then you may find yourself in trouble in listening people talking.
Java and Games Support for java is a standard for handphone nowadays. There are three games bundle, namely, F1Race, snake and chopter. Enough for some game enthusiast to kill their time. You can add new java games or application to your like, by using USB cable and transfer the file into the handphone.
Battery I really like the USB charging capability, as you can use your notebook or pc to charge it. Charging through PC USB take about 2 hour to finish. While charging, you just have to ignore the enter mode question, and it will go off by itself. It is to make sure that u still can use your handphone to receive or make call while charging. Just don't enter any mode if you just need to charge it.
There is bundle Power to mini-USB cable which you can use to charge C2500 by using home wall power socket. It takes me about 1.5 hours in order to fully charge the handphone, slightly in shorter time compare to using PC USB power.
With more than 4 days of continues usage, mp3 listening, menu navigating, C2500 is amazing in this area. Compare to some other color handphone, 1-2 days is pretty standard, C2500 really give a big bang on the bucks that you pay for its long lasting battery.
Pros: # 60MB to spare for USB storage and mp3 # Average size, not too big, not too small # FM radio, mp3 player, voice recorder # Rich in camera setting
Cons: # 4-way of D-pad, no confirm press while pushing down # No video recording # No bluetooth nor infra-red # VGA camera lg Add » ringers Add » lge Add » gce Add » overburn Add » hansol Add » f700 Add » brenner Add » 微波炉 Add » 4020 Add » 화학 Add » landgericht Add » electrodomésticos Add » 국민 Add » 52x Add » 4320 Add » 5350 Add » lg vx4400 Add » lg phones Add » lg cell phone battery Add » lg faceplates Add » lg car charger Add » lg cellular phone Add » lg 510 Add » lg cell Add » lg vx10 battery Add » lg phone batteries Add » lg wireless phone Add » lg cellular phone accessories Add » lg electronics Add » lg case Add » lg phone Add » lg 1200 Add » lg headset Add » lg 1010 battery Add » lg lcd Add » the 4400 Add » lg vx 3100 Add » lg washer Add » lg refrigerators Add » fisher and paykel Add » hyundai imagequest Add » lg verizon phone Add » lg monitors Add » c 8080 Add » lg cellular Add » sprint ringers Add » lg plasma tv Add » lg parts Add » lg monitor Add » navman icn 510 Add » lg kv5900 Add » lg g4050 Add » lg usb Add » lg 42 Add » lg philips lcd Add » aire acondicionado Add » lg cellphone Add » lg mobile phone Add » www lg Add » lg vx 2000 Add » lg cdrw Add » lg 7100 Add » lg vx7000 phone Add » ipaq 1710 Add » lg 8100 cell phone Add » lge performance Add » lg 1200 cell phone Add » lg software Add » lg c1100 Add » lg vx10 cell phone Add » lg plasma televisions Add » coolpix 8400 reviews Add » lg phone faceplates Add » pix 510 Add » grd files Add » lg dvd players Add » lg u8150 Add » lg 8120 Add » lg 4400 battery Add » lg sync software Add » lg vx8000 mp3 Add » lg vx 3200 cell phone Add » nikon coolpix 8400 8.0 mp Add » mountainsmith cross country vx 21 Add » hitachi lg data Add » 4400 music Add » lg plasma screen Add » the 4400 episode Add » lg vx7000 bluetooth Add » lg owners manual Add » karl brenner Add » 30a plug Add » sony rdr vx 500 Add » lg vx4500 data cable Add » proxy list 8080 Add » fisher paykel dish drawers Add » lg 8360 Add » 4400 massachusetts avenue nw Add » lg pm325 review Add » plextor 16x Add » lg vx5200 rebate Add » lg stands for Add » lg siltron Add » lg tm 510 90662 lg 27248 lg phone 26195 lg cell phone 24781 lg electronics 12944 lg appliance 8001 lg c1300 6855 lg refrigerator 4371 lg vx9800 3905 blog lg lp site spaces.msn.com 3850 lg lp site spaces.msn.com 3642 lg ringtone 3637 lg tv 3486 lg vx8100 3361 lg v 3307 lg cellular phone 3107 lg mobile phone 3034 lg television 2836 c2000 lg 2731 lg washer 2643 cu320 lg 2599 lg e 2487 lg vx5200 2382 lg mobile 2370 f9200 lg 2365 2430 lg mini split 2306 3100 inrease lg singal 2210 lg f9100 2174 lg vx6100 2080 lg plasma tv 2062 cg300 lg 1982 lg electronic 1922 lg plasma 1898 lg washing machine 1875 lg phone accessory 1848 lg monitor 1844 lg vx6000 1789 lg 8100 1732 lg lcd 1700 lg accessory 1698 free lg ringtone 1681 lg lcd tv 1623 c1500 lg 1548 verizon lg phone 1443 lg dvd 1432 lg cellular 1410 lg vx 8100 1361 lg u880 1353 lg camera cell phone 1322 lg vx3200 1281 lg air conditioner 1260 lg washer dryer 1244 lg canada 1222 9800 lg 1213 lg vx3300 1201 lg india 1192 verizon lg 1174 lg vx4400 1140 lg washer dryer combo 1128 lg cell phone accessory 1127 lg usa 1110 lg tvs 1073 lg lrm 519 1065 lg product 1054 lg dvd recorder 1028 cuchi cuchi lg 1007 lg vx8000 969 lg p7200 964 lg philips 959 lg vx7000 956 lg f7200 923 lg driver 915 driver placa de rede lg 912 lg plasma television 908 verizon lg cell phone 904 9800 lg vx 893 lg microwave 878 lg dishwasher 877 lg cell phone battery 859 lg mobiles 849 free lg ringtone verizon wireless 839 cell lg phone v 835 lg web site 834 lg 5200 830 lg wireless phone 829 225 lg pm 829 lg faceplates 828 lg 9100 791 lg vx4650 789 lg computer 773 5200 lg vx 771 lg electronics usa 763 lg 6100 750 lg camera phone 740 the wiltern lg 736 lg laptop 733 lg ax5000 727 lg dvd player 720 free ringtone for lg phone 711 lg vx4500 690 lg migo
Motto: /Xam: !ke e: ǀxarra ǁke (English: "Unity In Diversity" or literally, "Diverse People Unite") Anthem: National anthem of South Africa Location of South Africa Capital Cape Town (Legislative) Pretoria (Administrative) Bloemfontein (Judicial) 33°55′ S 18°25′ E Largest city Johannesburg Official language(s) Afrikaans, English, Zulu, Xhosa, Swati, Ndebele, Southern Sotho, Northern Sotho, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda Government President Parliamentary democracy Thabo Mbeki Independence Declared From United Kingdom May 31, 1910 Area - Total
- Water (%) 1,219,912 km² (25th) 471,011 sq mi negligible Population - July 2005 est. - Density 44,344,136 [1] (26th) 36/km² (136th) 93/sq mi GDP (PPP) - Total - Per capita 2005 estimate $527.4 billion (21st) $11,900 (60th) HDI (2003) 0.658 (120th) – medium Currency Rand (ZAR) Time zone - Summer (DST) (UTC+2) not observed (UTC+2) Internet TLD .za Calling code +27 1.) Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
This article is about the country in Africa. For the region, see Southern Africa. For the former country in the Transvaal, see South African Republic.
The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of the African continent. It borders the countries of Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Swaziland. Lesotho is an enclave entirely surrounded by South African territory.
South Africa has experienced a significantly different evolution than other nations in Africa arising primarily from two facts: immigration from Europe reached levels not experienced in other African communities and a level of mineralogical wealth that made the country extremely important to Western interests particularly during the Cold War. As a result of the former, South Africa is a very racially diverse nation. It has the largest population of people of Coloured (i.e., mixed racial background), European, and Indian communities in Africa. Black South Africans account for roughly 75% of the population.
Racial strife between the white minority and the black majority have played a large part in the country's history and politics, culminating in apartheid which was instituted in 1948 by the National Party. The laws that defined apartheid began to be repealed or abolished in 1990 after a long and violent struggle by the black majority, as well as some White, Coloured, and Indian South Africans.
The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup d'état, and regular elections have been held for almost a century; black South Africans were only enfranchised in 1994. The economy of South Africa is the largest and best developed on the continent, with modern infrastructure common throughout the country.
South Africa is often referred to as The Rainbow Nation - a term coined by Archbishop Desmond Tutu and later elaborated upon by then-President Nelson Mandela as a metaphor to describe the country's newly-developing multicultural diversity in the wake of separatist apartheid ideology.
History
South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological sites in Africa. Extensive fossil remains at the Sterkfontein, Kromdraai and Makapansgat caves suggest that various australopithecines existed in South Africa from about three million years ago. These were succeeded by various species of Homo, including Homo habilis, Homo erectus and modern man, Homo sapiens. Bantu iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen moved south of the Limpopo River into modern-day South Africa by the 4th or 5th century (the Bantu expansion). They slowly moved south and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southermost group was the Xhosa people, reaching the Fish River, in today's Eastern Cape Province. These Iron Age populations displaced earlier hunter-gatherer peoples as they migrated.
The written history of South Africa began on April 6, 1652, when a victualing station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession. The Dutch settlers eventually met the South-Westerly expanding Xhosa people in the region of the Fish River. A series of wars, called Cape Frontier Wars, ensued, mainly caused by conflicting land and live-stock interests. To ease Cape labour shortages slaves were imported from Indonesia, Madagascar, and India. Descendants of these slaves, who often married with Dutch settlers, were later classified together with the remnants of the Khoikhoi as Cape Coloureds and "Cape Malays", constituting roughly 50% of the population in the Western Cape Province.
Great Britain seized the Cape of Good Hope area in 1797 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. The Dutch declared bankruptcy, and the British annexed the Cape Colony in 1805. The British continued the frontier wars against the AmaXhosa, pushing the eastern frontier eastward through a line of forts established along the Fish River and consolidating it by encouraging British settlement. Due to pressure of abolitionist societies in Britain, the British parliament first stopped its global slave trade in 1806, then abolished slavery in all its colonies in 1833.
The discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1886 encouraged economic growth and immigration, intensifying the subjugation of the natives. The Boers successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880–1881) basing their tactics much better on local conditions. For example, the Boers wore khaki clothing, which was the same colour as the earth, whereas the British wore bright red uniforms, making them easy targets for Boer sharpshooters. The British returned in greater numbers without their red jackets in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), which was largely opposed by the Liberal Party in the British Parliament. The Boers' attempt to ally themselves with German South West Africa provided the British with yet another excuse to take control of the Boer Republics.
The Boers resisted fiercely, but the British eventually overwhelmed the Boer forces, using their superior numbers and external supply chains, as well as the controversial scorched earth tactic. The Treaty of Vereeniging specified full British sovereignty over the South African republics, and the British government agreed to assume the £3,000,000 war debt owed by the Afrikaner governments. One of the main provisions of the treaty ending the war was that blacks would not be allowed to vote, except in the Cape Colony.
After four years of negotiations, the Union of South Africa was created from the colonies of Cape Colony, Natal Colony, and the republics of Orange Free State, and Transvaal on May 31, 1910, exactly eight years after the end of the Second Boer War. The newly-created Union of South Africa was a dominion. In 1934 the South African Party and National Parties merged to form the United Party, seeking reconciliation between Afrikaners and English-speaking whites, but split in 1939 over the Union's entry in World War II as an ally of the United Kingdom. The right-wing National Party sympathised with Nazi Germany during the war, and sought greater racial segregation, or apartheid after it.
After World War II, by the National Party's election in 1948, the white minority were able to maintain their powergrip by implementing the policies that would become known collectively as apartheid, a series of harsh, and often elaborately racist laws segregating the country along racial lines. During the 50's, 60's, and 70's South Africa underwent a period of rapid industrialization, but the economic benefits were not evenly distributed. While the nation's white community enjoyed the highest standard of living in all of Africa, often comparable to "first world" western nations, the black majority remained severely disadvantaged in almost every measurable standard, including income, education, housing, and life expectancy. However, the average income and life expectancy of a black, 'indian' or 'colored' south african compared favorably to many other african states such as Ghana and Tanzania.
Apartheid became increasingly controversial, leading to widespread sanctions and divestment abroad and growing unrest and oppression within South Africa. (See also special section on History of South Africa in the apartheid era.) A long period of harsh supression by the government, and resistance, strikes, marches, protests, and sabotage, by various anti-apartheid movements, most notably the African National Congress(ANC) followed. In 1990 National Party government took the first step towards negotiating itself out of power when it lifted the ban on the African National Congress and other left-wing political organisations, and released Nelson Mandela from prison after 27 years. Apartheid legislation was gradually removed from the statute books, and the first multi-racial elections were held in 1994. The ANC won by an overwhelming majority, and has been in power ever since. South Africa is the first, and to date only, country to build nuclear weapons and then voluntarily dismantle its entire nuclear weapons programme.
Despite the end of apartheid, millions of South Africans, mostly black, continue to live in poverty. The reason for this is attributed to the legacy of the apartheid regime and increasingly, what many see as the failure of the current government to tackle social issues, this coupled with the monetary and fiscal discipline of the current government to ensure both redistrubution and economic growth. However, the ANC's social housing policy has produced some improvement in living conditions in many areas by redirecting fiscal spend and improving the efficiency of the tax collection system. [edit]
Politics The central area of Pretoria, the administrative capital of South Africa. Enlarge The central area of Pretoria, the administrative capital of South Africa.
Main article: Politics of South Africa
South Africa has a bicameral Parliament, comprising the National Council of Provinces (or upper house) with 90 members, and a National Assembly (or lower house) with 400 members. Members of the lower house are elected on a population basis by proportional representation: half of the members are elected from national lists and half are elected from provincial lists. Ten members are elected to represent each province in the National Council of Provinces, regardless of the population of the province. Elections for both chambers are held every five years. The government is formed in the lower house, and the leader of the majority party in the National Assembly is the President.
Current South African politics is dominated by the African National Congress (ANC), which received 69.7% of the vote during the 2004 general election. The main challenger to the ANC's rule is the Democratic Alliance party, which received only 12.4% of the vote. The formerly dominant New National Party, who introduced apartheid through its predecessor, the National Party, has suffered increasing humiliation at election polls since 1994, and finally voted to disband on 9 April 2005. [edit]
Provinces
Main article: Provinces of South Africa
When apartheid ended in 1994, the South African government had to integrate the formerly independent and semi-independent Bantustans into the political structure of South Africa. To this end, it abolished the four former provinces of South Africa (Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal) and replaced them with nine fully integrated provinces. The new provinces are usually much smaller than the former provinces, which theoretically is in order to give local governments more resources to distribute over smaller areas. The new provinces are:
Province Former Homelands and Provinces Capital Area (km²) Area (mi²) Population (2001) Eastern Cape Cape Province, Transkei, Ciskei Bisho 169,580 65,475 6,436,761 Free State Orange Free State. QwaQwa Bloemfontein 129,480 49,992 2,706,776 Gauteng Transvaal Johannesburg 17,010 6,568 8,837,172 KwaZulu-Natal Natal. KwaZulu Pietermaritzburg 92,100 35,560 9,426,018 Mpumalanga Transvaal, KwaNdebele, KaNgwane. Bophuthatswana, Lebowa Nelspruit 79,490 30,691 3,122,994 Limpopo Transvaal, Venda. Lebowa, Gazankulu Polokwane 123,900 47,838 5,273,637 Northern Cape Cape Province Kimberley 361,830 139,703 822,726 North West Transvaal, Cape Province, Bophuthatswana Mafikeng 116,320 44,911 3,669,349 Western Cape Cape Province Cape Town 129,370 49,950 4,524,335 [edit]
Geography Map of South Africa Map of South Africa
Main article: Geography of South Africa
South Africa is located at the extreme south of Africa, with a long coastline that stretches more than 2,500 kilometres (1,550 mi) and across two oceans (the Atlantic and the Indian). South Africa has a great variety of climate zones, from the extreme desert of the Kalahari near Namibia to lush subtropical climate along the border with Mozambique. It quickly rises over a mountainous escarpment towards the interior plateau known as the Highveld. Even though South Africa is classified as semi-arid, there is considerable variation in climate as well as topography.
The interior of South Africa is a giant, mountainous, and sparsely populated scrubland Karoo plateau, which is drier towards the north-west along the Kalahari desert. In contrast, the eastern coastline is lush and well-watered which produces a climate similar to the tropics. The extreme south west has a climate remarkably similar to that of the Mediterranean with wet winters and hot, dry summers. This area also produces much of South Africa's wine. This region is also particularly known for its wind, which blows intermittently almost all year. The severity of this wind made passing around the Cape of Good Hope particularly treacherous for sailors, causing many shipwrecks. Further east on the country's south coast rainfall is distributed more evenly throughout the year, producing a green landscape. This area is popularly known as the Garden Route.
The Free State is particularly flat due to the fact that the eastern region of the Highveld does not extend as far north as the western region. North the Vaal River, the Highveld becomes better watered and does not experience subtropical extremes of heat. Johannesburg, in the centre of the Highveld, is at 1,740 metres (5,709 ft) and receives an annual rainfall of 760 millimetres (30 in). Winters in this region are cold, although snow is rare.
To the north and east of Johannesburg, the altitude drops beyond the Highveld's escarpment, and turns into the Lowveld. The Lowveld has particularly high temperatures, and is also the location of traditional South African Bushveld. The high Drakensberg mountains, which form the eastern escarpment of the Highveld, offer limited skiing opportunities in winter. The coldest place in South Africa is Sutherland in the western Roggeveld Mountains, where midwinter temperatures can reach as low as –15 degrees Celsius (5 °F). The deep interior has the hottest temperatures: A temperature of 51.7 °C (125 °F) was recorded in 1948 in the Northern Cape Kalahari near Upington.[1]
South Africa also has one possession, the small sub-antarctic archipelago of the Prince Edward Islands, consisting of Marion Island (290 km²/112 mi²) and Prince Edward Island (45 km²/17.3 mi²); not to be confused with the Canadian province of the same name). [edit]
Flora and fauna Fynbos, a floral kingdom unique to South Africa, is found near Cape Town. Enlarge Fynbos, a floral kingdom unique to South Africa, is found near Cape Town.
South Africa has more than 20,000 different plants, or about 10% of all the known species of plants on Earth, making it particularly rich in plant biodiversity.
South Africa's most prevalent biome is grassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses, low shrubs, and acacia trees, mainly camel-thorn and whitethorn. Vegetation becomes even more sparse towards the northwest due to low rainfall. There are several species of water-storing succulents like aloes and euphorbias in the very hot and dry Namaqualand area. The grass and thorn savannah turns slowly into a bush savannah towards the northeast of the country, with more dense growth. There are significant numbers of baobab trees in this area, near the northern end of Kruger National Park. [2]
The Fynbos Biome, one of the six floral kingdoms, is located in a small region of the Western Cape and contains more than 9,000 of those species, making it among the richest regions on earth in terms of floral biodiversity. The majority of the plants are evergreen hard-leaf plants with fine, needle-like leaves, such as the sclerophyllous plants. Another uniquely South African plant is the protea genus of flowering plants. There are around 130 different species of protea in South Africa.
While South Africa has a great wealth of flowering plants, it has few forests. Only 1% of South Africa is forest, almost exclusively in the humid coastal plain along the Indian Ocean in KwaZulu-Natal. There are even smaller reserves of forests that are out of the reach of fire, known as montane forests. Plantations of imported tree species are predominant, particularly the non-native eucalyptus and pine. South Africa is one of the worst affected countries in the world when it comes to invasion by alien species with many e.g. Black Wattle, Port Jackson, Hakea, Lantana and Jacaranda posing a significant threat to the native biodiversity and the already scarce water resources. The original temperate forest that met the first European settlers to South Africa was exploited ruthlessly until only small patches remained. Currently, South African hardwood trees like Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), and South African Black Ironwood (Olea laurifolia) are under government protection. [edit]
Economy Durban, well-known resort city on the Indian Ocean coast and site of Africa's largest commercial port. Enlarge Durban, well-known resort city on the Indian Ocean coast and site of Africa's largest commercial port. The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront in Cape Town with Table Mountain in the background. Cape Town has become an important retail and tourism centre for the country, and attracts the largest number of foreign visitors in South Africa. Enlarge The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront in Cape Town with Table Mountain in the background. Cape Town has become an important retail and tourism centre for the country, and attracts the largest number of foreign visitors in South Africa.
Main article: Economy of South Africa
South Africa is a middle-income country with an abundant supply of resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors, a stock exchange (the JSE Securities Exchange), that ranks among the 10 largest in the world, and a modern infrastructure supporting an efficient distribution of goods to major urban centres throughout the region. South Africa's per capita GDP, corrected for purchasing power parity, positions the country as one of the 50 wealthiest in the world. In many respects, South Africa is developed; however, this development is significantly localised around 4 areas, namely: Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Durban, and Pretoria-Johannesburg. Beyond these 4 economic centres, development is marginal and poverty still reigns despite Government strategies. Large income gaps and a dual economy designate South Africa as developing. Only Brazil and India show a greater divide between its country's wealthy and poor residents. Consecutive growth rates in the last ten years are helping lower unemployment, however, the economy still has ways to go, and daunting economic problems remain from the apartheid era, especially the problems of poverty and lack of economic empowerment among the disadvantaged groups. Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. At the start of 2000, President Thabo Mbeki vowed to promote economic growth and foreign investment by relaxing restrictive labour laws, stepping up the pace of privatisation, and cutting unneeded governmental spending. His policies face strong opposition from organised labour. It is estimated that South Africa accounts for up to 30% of the gross domestic product of the entire African continent. South Africa is also the continent's largest energy producer and consumer.
The rand, the world's most actively traded emerging market currency, has joined an elite club of 15 currencies - the Continuous linked settlement (CLS) - where forex transactions are settled immediately, lowering the risks of transacting across time zone. The South African Rand (ZAR) was the best performing currency against the US Dollar between 2002 and 2005, according to the Bloomberg Currency Scorecard. The volatility of the rand has affected economic activity, with the rand falling sharply during 2001, hitting an historic low of R13.85 to the United States dollar, raising fears of inflation, and causing the Reserve Bank to increase interest rates. The rand has since dramatically recovered, trading at R5.99 to the dollar as of January 2006 while the South African Reserve Bank's policy of inflation targeting has brought inflation under control. The stronger rand has however put exporters under considerable pressure, with many calling for government to intervene in the exchange rate to help soften the rand, and many others dismissing staff.
21.5% of the adult South African population have been estimated to be HIV positive in 2004. The government has recently, after much delay, devoted substantial resources to fighting the epidemic. A recent study from the African Journal of AIDS Research by Thomas Rehle and Olive Shisana showed the infection rate starting to level off, from 4.2% to 1.7% infection rate for 15-49 year olds, and AIDS deaths peaking at 487,320 in 2008.
In 2000 President Mbeki publicly questioned the importance of HIV in causing AIDS, controversially suggesting that the main cause was "poverty". [3] In 2001 the government appointed a panel of scientists, including a number of AIDS dissidents (who question the mainstream view on HIV), to report back on the issue. Following their report, the government stated that it continues to base its policy on the premise that the cause of AIDS is indeed HIV [4]. The controversy has not abated, and organisations such as the Treatment Action Campaign continue to mount political and legal challenges to what they claim is the government's slow response to the epidemic.
Refugees from poorer neighbouring countries abound with immigrants from the DRC, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi and many others representing a large portion of the informal sector. With high unemployment levels amongst poorer South Africans, xenophobia is a very real fear and many people born in South Africa feel resentful of immigrants who are seen to be depriving the native population of jobs, a feeling which has been given credibility by the fact that many South African employers have employed migrants from other countries for lower pay than South African citizens, especially in the construction, tourism, agriculture and domestic service industries. Illegal immigrants are also heavily involved in informal trading. [5] However, many immigrants to South Africa continue to live in poor conditions, and the South African immigration policy has become increasingly restrictive since 1994 [6]. [edit]
Agriculture Workers planting on a farm in the central area of Mpumalanga. Enlarge Workers planting on a farm in the central area of Mpumalanga. A lake in the Little Scotland area of Mpumalanga where trout are grown in a fish farm. Enlarge A lake in the Little Scotland area of Mpumalanga where trout are grown in a fish farm.
Main article: Agriculture in South Africa
South Africa has a large agricultural sector, and is a net exporter of farming products. There are almost a thousand agricultural cooperatives and agribusinesses throughout the country, and agricultural exports constitute eight per cent of South Africa's total exports for the past five years. The agricultural industry contributes to around 30% of formal employment, relatively low compared to other parts of Africa, as well as providing work for casual labourers and contributing towards around 2.6% of GDP for the nation. However, due to the aridity of the land, only 15% can be used for crop production.
[7] Although the commercial farming sector is relatively well developed, people in some rural areas still survive on subsistence farming. It is the eighth largest wine producer in the world, and the eleventh largest producer of sunflower seed. South Africa is a net exporter of agricultural products and foodstuffs, the largest number of exported items being sugar, grapes, citrus, nectarines, wine and deciduous fruit. The largest locally produced crop is maize, and it has been estimated that 9 million tons is produced every year, with 7.4 million tons being consumed. Livestock are also popular on South African farms, with the country producing 85% of all meat consumed. The dairy industry consists of around 4300 milk producers providing employment for 60 000 farm workers and contributing to the livelihoods of around 40 000 others.
In recent years, the agricultural sector has introduced several reforms, some of which are controversial, such as land reform and the deregulation of the market for agricultural products. Land reform has been criticised both by farmers' groups and by landless workers, the latter alleging that the pace of change has not been fast enough, [8] and the former alleging racist treatment (many commercial farmers are white) and expressing concerns that a similar situation to Robert Mugabe's land reform policy may develop, a fear exacerbated by comments made by the country's deputy president [9]. The sector continues to face problems with increased foreign competition and crime being two of the major challenges for the industry.
Crime against commercial farmers is often, although not always, racially motivated as many South African commercial farmers are white. The rural farmer population has shouldered a great increase in attacks and harassment and has suffered as many as 1,700 farm murders since the end of apartheid in 1994, and this has caused many commercial farmers, who are often white, to flee the countryside for the protection of the gated communities of the cities and that offered by other nations. The government has been accused of not devoting enough time and money to tackle the problem as opposed to other forms of violent crime, or simply inefficiency and incompetence.
Another issue which continues to affect South African agriculture is environmental damage caused by misuse of the land. To reverse the damage caused by land mismanagement, the government have supported a scheme which promotes sustainable development and the use of natural resources. [10] [edit]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of South Africa
South Africa is a nation of 44.8 million people of diverse origins, cultures, languages, and beliefs. The 2001 Statistics South Africa census [11] provided five racial categories by which people could classify themselves, the last of which, "unspecified/other&q uot; drew negligible responses, and these results were omitted. Results for the other categories were:
By far the major part of the population classified itself as African or black, but it is not culturally or linguistically homogenous. Major ethnic groups include the Zulu, Xhosa, Basotho (South Sotho), Bapedi (North Sotho), Venda, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi and Ndebele. Some, such as the Zulu, Xhosa, Bapedi and Venda groups, are unique to South Africa.
Other groups are distributed across the borders with South Africa's neighbours: The Basotho group is also the major ethnic group in Lesotho. The Tswana ethnic group constitute the majority of the population of Botswana. The Swazi ethnic group is the major ethnic group in Swaziland. The Ndebele ethnic group is also found in Matabeleland in Zimbabwe, where they are known as the Matabele. These Ndebele people are however in effect Zulu people because the language they speak is Zulu and they are the descendants of the Warrior Mzilikazi who escaped persecution from Shaka to settle in that part of the World. The Tsonga ethnic group is also found in southern Mozambique, where they are known as the Shangaan.
The white population descends largely from colonial immigrants: Dutch, German, French Huguenot, and British. Linguistically, it is divided into Afrikaans- and English-speaking groups, although many small communities immigrating over the last century retain the use of other languages. The white population is on the decrease due to a low birth rate and emigration; as a factor in their decision to emigrate, many cite the high crime rate and the government's affirmative action policies.
The term "Coloured" is still largely used for the people of mixed race descended from slaves brought in from East and Central Africa, the indigenous Khoisan who lived in the Cape at the time, indigenous African Blacks, Whites (mostly the Dutch/Afrikaner settlers and the English) as well as an admixture of Javanese, Malay, Indian, Malagasy and other European and Asian blood (such as Portuguese and Burmese). The majority speak Afrikaans. Khoisan is a term used to describe two separate groups, physically similar in that they were light-skinned and small in stature. The Khoikhoi, who were called Hottentots by the Europeans, were pastoralists and were effectively annihilated; the San, called Bushmen by the Europeans, were hunter-gatherers. Within what is known as the Coloured community, you will also find some more recent immigrants - Coloureds from the old Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and Namibia, as well as immigrants of mixed descent from India and Burma (Anglo-Indians/Anglo-Burm ese) who were welcomed to the Cape when India and Burma received their Independence.
The major part of the Asian population of the country is Indian in origin, many of them descended from indentured workers brought in the 19th century to work on the sugar plantations of the eastern coastal area then known as Natal. There is also a significant group of Chinese South Africans (approximately 100 000 individuals). [edit]
Culture Prison Buildings on Robben Island, the holding place of several anti-apartheid fighters including Nelson Mandela, who was imprisoned there for 27 years. Robben Island is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Enlarge Prison Buildings on Robben Island, the holding place of several anti-apartheid fighters including Nelson Mandela, who was imprisoned there for 27 years. Robben Island is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Decorated houses, Drakensberg Mountains Enlarge Decorated houses, Drakensberg Mountains
Main article: Culture of South Africa
It may be argued that there is no "single" culture in South Africa because of its ethnic diversity. Today, the diversity in foods from many cultures are enjoyed by all and especially marketed to tourists who wish to sample the large variety of South African cuisine. In addition to food, music and dance feature prominently.
South African cuisine is heavily meat-based and has spawned the distinctively South African social gathering known as a braai. South Africa has also developed into a major wine producer, with some of the best vineyards in the world lying in valleys around Stellenbosch, Franschoek, Paarl and Barrydale.
There is great diversity in music from South Africa. Many black musicians who sang in Afrikaans or English during apartheid have since begun to sing in traditional African languages, and have developed a unique style called Kwaito. Of note is Brenda Fassie, who launched to fame with her song "Weekend Special", which was sung in English. More famous traditional musicians include Ladysmith Black Mambazo, while the Soweto String Quartet performs classic music with an African flavour. White and Coloured South African singers tend to avoid traditional African musical themes, instead preferring more European musical styles including such western metal bands such as Seether. There is a thriving market for Afrikaans music, covering all the genres of Western music.
The country's black majority still has a substantial number of rural inhabitants who lead largely impoverished lives. It is among these people, however, that traditional dance and music survive; as blacks have become increasingly urbanised and westernised, aspects of traditional culture have declined. Urban blacks usually speak English or Afrikaans in addition to their native tongue. There are smaller but still significant groups of speakers of Khoisan languages which are not official languages, but are one of the eight officially recognised languages. There are small groups of speakers of endangered languages, most of which are from the Khoi-San family, that receive no official status; however, some groups within South Africa are attempting to promote their use and revival.
The white minority lead lifestyles similar in many respects to whites found in Western Europe, North America and Australasia.
Despite considerable discrimination under apartheid, Coloureds tend to relate more to white South African culture rather than black South African culture, especially Afrikaans-speaking Coloured people whose language and religious beliefs are similar or identical to white Afrikaners. A small minority of Coloureds, known as Cape Malays, are Muslim.
Asians, predominantly of Indian origin, preserve their own cultural heritage, languages and religious beliefs, being either Hindu or Sunni Muslim, and speaking English, with Indian languages like Tamil or Gujarati being spoken less frequently. Most Indians arrived on the famous Truro ship as indentured labourers in Natal to work the Sugar Cane Fields. There is a much smaller Chinese community in South Africa, although its numbers have increased due to immigration from Taiwan. Since the Taiwanese were classified as White, rather than Asian, under apartheid, they tend to be more culturally similar to whites in many ways than they are to other Asians. [edit]
Languages
South Africa has 11 official languages: English, Afrikaans, Zulu, Swati, Ndebele, Southern Sotho, Northern Sotho, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa. In this regard it is second only to India in number. As a result, there are many official names for the country.
The country also recognises eight non-official languages: Fanagalo, Lobedu, Northern Ndebele, Phuthi, South African Sign Language, Khoe, Nama and San. These non-official languages may be used in certain official uses in limited areas where it has been determined that these languages are prevalent. Nevertheless, their populations are not such that they require nationwide recognition.
Many of the "unofficial languages" of the San and Khoikhoi people contain regional dialects stretching northward into Namibia and Botswana, and elsewhere. These people, who are a physically distinct population from other Africans, have their own cultural identity based on their hunter-gatherer societies. They have been marginalised to a great extent, and many of their languages are in danger of becoming extinct.
Many white South Africans also speak other European languages, such as Portuguese, German, and Greek, while many Asians and Indians in South Africa speak South Asian languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati and Tamil.
There are 11 official names for South Africa, one for each of the official national languages. While each language is technically equal to every other, English has emerged recently as the chief-among-peers as it is the most widely spoken language across racial barriers as well as globally, even though it is not the most widely spoken language by population. Afrikaans has been downgraded in order to accommodate other official languages. The South African passport currently has only French and English on the front cover and lists the other official names of South Africa on an inner page. [edit]
Crime
Main article: Crime in South Africa
Crime has been a major problem in South Africa since the end of the Apartheid. According to a survey for the period 1998 - 2000 compiled by the United Nations, South Africa was ranked first for murder by firearm (both absolute and per capita) and rape per capita. It was also number two for assault and murder (by all means) per capita. On the positive side, total crime per capita is 10th out of the 60 countries in the data set. Nevertheless, crime has had a pronounced effect on society: many wealthier South Africans moved into gated communities, abandoning the central business districts of some cities for the relative security of suburbs. This effect is most pronounced in Johannesburg, although the trend is noticeable in other cities as well. Many emigrants from South Africa also state that crime was a big motivator for them to leave. Crime against commercial farmers has continued to be a major problem in the country, and has resulted in thousands either emigrating or giving up the profession. South Africa also has a bad record for car hijackings.
However, violent crimes such as murder and robberies have decreased in recent years, with the year 2004 seeing a drop of 4.6% and 5.3% respectively for these two offences. The rape rate, however, showed no signs of such a slowdown. [12] Recently the government has had a widely-publicised gun amnesty programme to recall the many weapons still in circulation from the apartheid era violence and wars in neighbouring countries like Mozambique. In addition, it adopted the National Crime Prevention Strategy in 1996, which aimed to prevent crime through reinforcing community structures and helping individuals back into work. [13]
The government is criticised for doing too little to stop crime. Some question the effectiveness of the South African Police Service, which is known to make use of private security firms to protect its police stations. It must be pointed out, however, that due to the high crime rate in South Africa, many private individuals also make use of these systems. [edit]
Military
Main article: South African National Defence Force
South Africa's armed forces, known as the South African National Defence Force (SANDF), was created in 1994. Previously known simply as the South African Defence Force (SADF), the new force consists of the forces of the old SADF, as well as the military forces of the organisations fighting for liberation, namely Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), APLA, and the former homeland defence forces. The SANDF is subdivided into four branches, the South African Army, the South African Air Force, the South African Navy, and the South African Military Health Services.
In recent years, the SANDF has become a major peacekeeping force in Africa, and has been involved in operations in Lesotho, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Burundi, amongst others. It has also participated as a part of multi-national UN peacekeeping forces. South Africa is the only country ever to develop nuclear weapons and to subsequently give them up. [edit]
Media
Main article: Media in South Africa
South Africa also has a large, free, and active press that regularly challenges the government, a habit formed during the apartheid era when the press was the media least controlled by the government. Major scandals have erupted when the press reported charges of corruption that were proven to be true in cases such as that of Schabir Shaik, in which deputy president Jacob Zuma was implicated, and the corruption allegations that led to the dismissal of Winnie Mandela from parliament. The government's stance on the 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections and AIDS have also attracted plenty of coverage.
Even though South Africa now has the most sophisticated media network in Africa, it was one of the last countries in the world to allow television, with colour TV broadcasts commencing in 1975. By the end of apartheid in 1994, television networks covered all urban areas and some less populated areas, while radio networks covered almost all of the country.
During the Apartheid era the majority of commercial and all public-service radio stations and all of the television channels were operated by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), and were subject to strict control and censorship by the government, with a few independent regional stations allowed. The creation of the independent black homelands (or Bantustans) in the 1970's allowed for the establishment of TV and radio stations outside of the control of the apartheid Government. Following the demise of Apartheid, the broadcasting industry was de-regulated with many of the commercial regional SABC stations and former Bantustan stations privatised and sold to companies and consortiums that were majority owned by blacks.
An African language channel was introduced to the SABC in 1981 with a second African language channel added later in the decade. The SABC's television monopoly was eventually challenged in 1986 when a new privately owned subscription television network, M-Net, was launched. M-Net was forbidden to operate a news service.
South Africa currently has two terrestrial free-to-air television networks (SABC and e.tv), one subscription based terrestrial network (M-Net), as well as has access to satellite television (DStv) which is operated by M-Net's owners, Multichoice. e. TV is allowed to operate an independent television news service. The SABC broadcasts news and entertainment channels Africa-wide via satellite. [edit]
See also Topics in South Africa History Cape Colony | Apartheid | Foreign relations Geography Cities | National parks | Postal codes | Telephone codes Politics Constitution | Political parties (African Christian Democrats, African National Congress, Azanian People's Organisation, Democratic Alliance, Inkatha Freedom, Independent Democrats, Minority Front, New National, Pan Africanist Congress, Communists, Freedom Front +, United Christian Democrats, United Democratic Movement) | Elections | Provinces | Military | Police Culture South African English | Art | Cinema | Cuisine | Islam | Literature | Music | Poets | Public holidays | Television (SABC, M-Net) | Television series Other List of South Africans | Communications in South Africa | Transportation in South Africa | List of South African companies [edit]
International rankings Organisation Survey Ranking A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index 2005 48 out of 62 Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal 2006 Index of Economic Freedom 50 out of 157 IMD International World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005 46 out of 60 Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index (2005) 31 out of 167 Save the Children Children's Index Rank 2005 65 out of 110 The Economist Worldwide Quality-of-Life Index 2005 92 out of 111 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2004 44 out of 146 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 2005 120 out of 177 World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 41 out of 104 [edit]
References
* A History of South Africa, Third Edition. Leonard Thompson. Yale University Press. 1 March 2001. 384 pages. ISBN 0300087764. * South Africa: A Narrative History. Frank Welsh. Kodansha America. 1 February 1999. 606 pages. ISBN 1568362587. * The Atlas of Changing South Africa. A. J. Christopher. 1 October 2000. 216 pages. ISBN 0415211786. * The Politics of the New South Africa. Heather Deegan. 28 December 2000. 256 pages. ISBN 0582382270. * Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid. Nigel Worden. 1 July 2000. 194 pages. ISBN 0631216618. * Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City. Richard Tomlinson, et al. 1 January 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0415935598. * "Religion and Politics in South Africa." David Hein. Modern Age 31 (1987): 21-30. * South Africa Government Online. Accessed 20 February 2005. * SouthAfrica.info. Accessed 12 February 2005.
[edit]
External links
Portal:South Africa South Africa Portal Find more information on South Africa by searching Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews
Government
* South Africa Government Online official government site * Parliament of South Africa official site * Statistics South Africa official government site
News
* AllAfrica.com - South Africa news headline links * Business Day financial daily * Independent Online * Mail & Guardian daily newspaper * News 24 * South African Weather Service * South Africa: The Good News * Haikona ! South African News
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - South Africa * CIA World Factbook - South Africa * Library of Congress Country Study - South Africa data as of November 1994 * Open Directory Project - South Africa directory category
Tourism
* Travel guide to South Africa from Wikitravel * Welcome to South Africa official South African tourism site
Other
* - Maps of South Africa * - The JSE Securities Exchange, the South African stock exchange
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Konungariket Sverige Kingdom of Sweden Flag of Sweden Sweden: Coat of Arms (In Detail) (In detail) Motto: Swedish: För Sverige i tiden1 (English: "For Sweden, with the times") Anthem: Du gamla, Du fria ("Thou ancient, Thou free, Thou mountainous North") Location of Sweden Official language Swedish2 Capital Stockholm Largest city Stockholm King Carl XVI Gustaf Prime Minister Göran Persson Area - Total - % water Ranked 55th 449,964 km² 8.67% Population - Total (2005) - Density Ranked 84th 9,047,752 20/km² GDP (2003) - Total (PPP) - Total - GDP/capita (PPP) - GDP/capita $239 billion (34th) $301 billion (19th) $26,656 (20th) $33,586 (9th) Currency Swedish krona (SEK) Time zone - in summer CET (UTC+1) CEST (UTC+2) National anthem Du gamla, Du fria Internet TLD .se Calling code +46
1 För Sverige i tiden is adopted by Carl XVI Gustaf as his personal motto in his role as Swedish monarch. 2 The Swedish language is the de facto national language. Five languages are officially recognized as minority languages. edit
The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway in the west, Finland in the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait in the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia in the east. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas, with most of the inland consisting of forests and mountainous wilderness.
Following the decline of the Viking Age, Sweden became part of the Kalmar Union together with Denmark and Norway (Finland at this time was a part of Sweden). Sweden left the union in the beginning of the 16th century, and more or less constantly battled its neighbours for many years, especially Russia and the still united Denmark-Norway, which never really accepted Sweden leaving the union. In the 17th and 18th centuries Sweden extended its territory through warfare and became a Great Power, twice its current size. The extended territory was subsequently lost within a century. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a policy of keeping free of alliances.
Sweden was one of the poorest countries in Europe in the 19th century, shaped by heavy alcohol consumption[1], until improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country, most notably timber and iron ore, which allowed the creation of a welfare state in the early 20th century. Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index.
History
Main article: History of Sweden
[edit]
Pre-history
Further information: Prehistoric Sweden, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
The Norse God Thor Enlarge The Norse God Thor
Soon after the recession of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by hunters and gatherers, during the Stone Age (6000 BC – 4000 BC). The region developed rather slowly compared to southern Europe; while the Romans wrote poetry, Scandinavia had just entered the Iron Age.
Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. This referred to the inhabitants of eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren; Sigtuna, and Birka. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name (see Etymology of Sweden). The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by Geats (Götar) in the Götaland territory. Little is known for certain about that time, but chronicles based on Norse sagas and the Beowulf epos go back about 2,000 years.
During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled east setting their mark on the Baltic countries, Russia whose name comes from the Finnish name for these Vikings: Rus (the Finnish name for Sweden is Ruotsi), the Black Sea, further through the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople and southern Europe. The Swedish Vikings were somewhat different from their Norwegian and Danish counterparts as they were not as warrior minded but instead were more merchant and settler minded. [edit]
Middle ages
Further information: Early Swedish history, and Foundation of Modern Sweden, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
Gripsholm Castle Enlarge Gripsholm Castle
With Christianization in the 12th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect.
During the middle ages, the expansion of Sweden into the northern wilderness of Laplandia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and present-day Finland continued. Finland was a part of Sweden proper from 1362 until 1809.
In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a treaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation." [edit]
A major power The Swedish Empire in 1658 (orange) overlaid by present day Sweden (red) Enlarge The Swedish Empire in 1658 (orange) overlaid by present day Sweden (red)
Further information: Rise of Sweden as a Great Power, and Swedish Empire, and Sweden and the Great Northern War, and Absolute Monarchy in Sweden, and Sweden-Finland, and Union between Sweden and Norway, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the great powers in Europe, due to successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. Mighty as it was, it crumbled in the 18th century with Imperial Russia taking the reins of northern Europe in the Great Northern War, and finally in 1809 when the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was created out of the eastern half of Sweden.
After Denmark was defeated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. Norway had meanwhile declared itself independent and this led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814. It ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars and its 200 years of peace are arguably unique in the world today. [edit]
Modern history
Further information: Modernization of Sweden, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
The 19th century saw a significant population increase, generally attributed to peace, vaccination, and potatoes, doubling the population from 1750 to 1850. Many people in the countryside, where most Swedes lived, found themselves unemployed. The result was poverty, alcoholism, and massive emigration; it is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States alone. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Gothenburg (Sweden's second largest city). Strong grassroots movements sprung up during the latter half of the 19th century (unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups). They were all based on democratic principles and built a strong base for Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialist unions. A threatening Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized. [edit]
Recent history
Further information: Industrialization of Sweden, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed, as it made concessions to both sides during the war. (See further Sweden during World War II)
Following the war, Sweden took advantage of its natural resources and lack of war damage, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, leading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. Sweden was part of the Marshall Plan but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. During most of the post-war era, the country was ruled by the Swedish Social Democratic Party that established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy. This policy led to recession in the early 1990s, and some of the socialist policies were relaxed. Sweden, despite its officially neutral stance, joined the European Union in 1995, arguing that neutrality was less important in the post-Cold War world. However, in a 2003 consultative referendum, Swedish citizens declined to adopt the Euro.
As other economies were re-established, Sweden was surpassed in the 1970s and had to adjust its politics in the 1990s; however, it still ranks among the top nations in terms of standard of living. [edit]
Geography A map of Sweden with largest cities and lakes and most important roads and railroads, from a printed CIA World Factbook. Enlarge A map of Sweden with largest cities and lakes and most important roads and railroads, from a printed CIA World Factbook. View of Gamla Stan across Saltsjön. Stockholm, Sweden Enlarge View of Gamla Stan across Saltsjön. Stockholm, Sweden Image near Kebnekaise from Lappland in northern Norrland. Enlarge Image near Kebnekaise from Lappland in northern Norrland. Image from Göteborg archipelago in northern Götaland. Enlarge Image from Göteborg archipelago in northern Götaland. Image from Skåne in southern Götaland. Enlarge Image from Skåne in southern Götaland. An autumn image from Dalarna in Sweden Enlarge An autumn image from Dalarna in Sweden The Turning Torso skyscraper in Malmö, Skåne. Enlarge The Turning Torso skyscraper in Malmö, Skåne. Akalla outside Stockholm. Enlarge Akalla outside Stockholm.
Main article: Geography of Sweden
Sweden enjoys a mostly temperate climate despite its northern latitude, mainly due to the Gulf Stream. In the south of Sweden leaf-bearing trees are prolific, in the north pines, spruces and hardy birches dominate the landscape. In the mountains of northern Sweden a sub-Arctic climate predominates. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and in the winter, night is unending for a corresponding period. The country is similar in size to the U.S. state of California, and has nearly the same population as the Californian city of Los Angeles.
East of Sweden lies the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and mellowing the climate further yet. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain, a range that separates Sweden from Norway.
The southern part of the country is predominantly agricultural, with forests covering a larger percentage of the land the further north one goes. Population density is also higher in southern Sweden, with centres being in the valley of lake Mälaren and the Öresund region.
Gotland and Öland are the largest Islands of Sweden. [edit]
Counties
For more details on this topic, see Counties of Sweden.
Sweden is divided into 21 counties or län. They are Stockholm County, Uppland County, Södermanland County, Östergötland County, Jönköping County, Kronoberg County, Kalmar County, Gotland County, Blekinge County, Skåne County, Halland County, Västra Götaland County, Värmland County, Örebro County, Västmanland County, Dalarna County, Gävleborg County, Västernorrland County, Jämtland County, Västerbotten County and Norrbotten County.
Each has a County Administrative Board or länsstyrelse which is appointed by the Government. In each county there is also a separate County Council or landsting, which is the municipal representation appointed by the county electorate. Each county further divides into a number of municipalities or kommuner, making a total of 290 municipalities, in 2004. There are also older historical divisions of Sweden, primarily into the 25 provinces and three lands. These divisions are still significant. [edit]
Provinces
For provinces see:Provinces of Sweden [edit]
Largest cities
Denotes inhabitants in the municipality (kommun) area. Area is in km². The figures are as of 2005. Rank Municipality Population Land Area Density 1 Stockholm 765,044 187.74 4,075.02 2 Göteborg 481,410 450.71 1,068.11 3 Malmö 269,142 155.56 1,730.15 4 Uppsala 182,076 2,189.10 83.17 5 Linköping 136,912 1,435.80 95.36 6 Västerås 131,014 962.78 136.08 7 Örebro 126,982 1,380.11 92.01 8 Norrköping 124,410 1,503.61 82.74 9 Helsingborg 121,179 346.25 349.98 10 Jönköping 119,927 1,488.75 80.56 11 Umeå 110,705 2,331.39 46.92 12 Lund 101,423 430.27 235.72 13 Borås 98,886 915.22 108.05 14 Sundsvall 93,707 3,208.70 29.20 15 Gävle 92,081 1,615.07 57.01
Further information: List of municipalities of Sweden by population, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
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Demographics
For more details on this topic, see Demographics of Sweden.
Södermalm Enlarge Södermalm
Sweden has one of the world's highest life expectancies. As of approximately 12 August 2004, the total population of Sweden for the first time exceeded 9,000,000, according to Statistics Sweden. As of February, 2006, the population was 9,060,430. [2]
The country's population includes some 17,000 indigenous Sami. Some 50,000 of the ethnic Finns of Sweden also constitute an indigenous minority, although many more of the Sweden Finns descend from 20th century immigrants.
Sweden has been transformed from a nation of emigration ending after World War I to a nation of immigration from World War II onwards. Currently, almost 12% of the residents are born abroad, and about one fifth of Sweden's population are either immigrants or the children of immigrants. The largest immigrant groups are from Finland, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq and then other Nordic Countries, in that order. This reflects the inter-Nordic migrations, earlier periods of labour immigration, and later decades of refugee and family immigration.
Soviet intervention against the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the 1968 Czechoslovak liberalization resulted in the first surges of intellectual political refugees. Some American deserters from the Vietnam War also found refuge among the Swedes, who in international politics took a clear stand against what they typically viewed as imperialism executed by both the Soviet Union and the United States of America. After the 1973 coup in Chile, and the following military dictatorships in Chile and other South American countries, political refugees came to dominate the image of immigration to Sweden, including refugees from Iran, Iraq and Palestine. [edit]
Language
For more details on this topic, see Swedish language.
Swedish is a Germanic language, related to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. Sweden has no official language but the Swedish language holds a de facto status as such. The dominant language has always been Swedish and there has never been a political issue about making it an official language. However, with the recognition of five minority languages of Sweden (being Finnish, Meänkieli, Sami, Romani and Yiddish) on April 1, 2000, the issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language was raised. On December 7, 2005, the parliament voted on this issue, and with the count 147 to 145 the earlier position was settled, i.e. Swedish is not the official language according to law. It was, however, strengthened as the principal language in that same proposal.
Most Swedes, especially those under 60, are able to understand and speak English thanks to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films. English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as early as 1849 and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s [3]. Depending on the local school authorities, English is currently a compulsory subject from first until ninth grade, and most students continuing in secondary school study English for a further three years. Most students also learn one or two additional languages; often German, French, or Spanish. [edit]
Politics
Main article: Politics of Sweden
Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of two chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clerics, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. The Riksdag in Stockholm Enlarge The Riksdag in Stockholm Inside the Riksdag Enlarge Inside the Riksdag
Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to judicial review. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws. Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.
Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties.
The Swedish Social Democratic Party has played a leading political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1932, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only three general elections (1976,1979 and 1991) have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the reason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with a government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product.
In January 2006, the following political parties held seats in the Riksdag (the most recent elections were held in September 2002; the next elections will be held in September 2006):
* Socialdemokraterna (s, Social Democrats): 144 seats, 39.8% of votes * Moderaterna (m, Moderates): 55 seats, 15.2% of votes * Folkpartiet liberalerna (fp, Liberal Party): 48 seats, 13.3% of votes * Kristdemokraterna (kd, Christian Democrats): 33 seats, 9.1% of votes * Vänsterpartiet (v, Left Party): 28 seats, 8.3% of votes * Centerpartiet (c, Center Party): 22 seats, 6.1% of votes * Miljöpartiet (mp, Greens): 17 seats, 4.6% of votes
(There are also 2 members of parliament who have left their respective parties during this term and are therefore not counted above.)
Some Swedish political figures that have become known worldwide include Anna Lindh, Joe Hill, Carl Skoglund, Raoul Wallenberg, Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme, Carl Bildt and Hans Blix. [edit]
Energy politics
For more details on this topic, see Nuclear power phase-out#Sweden.
After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Sweden wants to be independent of petroleum use by 2020. Accidents at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 per cent of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 2003, electricity from hydropower accounted for 53 TWh and 40 per cent of the country's production of electricity with nuclear power delivering 65 TWh (49 per cent). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh of electricity[4].
In March 2005, an opinion poll with 1027 persons asked, showed 83 per cent support for maintaining or increasing nuclear power [5]. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published [6]. This doesn't seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power.
Sweden decided to phase out nuclear fission before 2020, although it is very unlikely that this will happen. [edit]
Economy The Swedish Krona, depicting King Carl XVI Gustav. Enlarge The Swedish Krona, depicting King Carl XVI Gustav.
Main article: Economy of Sweden
The standard of living has become markedly high under Sweden's social democratic system. The economy features a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade.
The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. The public and the trade unions controlled pension funds, non-profit organizations and the reserve funds of the trade-unions owns more than 50% of Sweden capital. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions. The public sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantial budgetary surplus in 2001, which was cut by more than half in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, revenue declines, and spending increases. The Swedish Riksbank is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.3% in 2006, assuming a continued global recovery. Swedish unemployment figures are highly contested with the Socialdemocratic government claiming that the figure is 5.6% and the opposition claiming it is much higher. The official statistics on unemployment is 5.6% for 2004 these numbers do not however include unemployed people in government programs, people on extended sick-leave and people in different welfare programs. Unemployment is thought to be closer to 11% when using a system of measurement similar to that of other European nations and the United States. Sweden is known for having an even distribution of income, with a Gini coefficient at 0.21 in 2001 (one of the most even income distributions in the industrialized world). [edit]
Welfare state
Further information: Social welfare in Sweden, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
Hjalmar Branting, the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Sweden Enlarge Hjalmar Branting, the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Sweden
What is known as the Scandinavian model is usually described as a middle way between socialism and capitalism and is regarded by its proponents as the most developed form of capitalism.
The state provides for tax-funded childcare, parental leave, a ceiling on health care costs, free education (all levels up to, and including university), retirement pensions, free dental care up to 20 years of age and sick leave (partly paid by the employer). Parents are entitled to a total of 480 days partly paid leave between birth and the child's eighth birthday, with 60 days reserved specifically for each parent, in effect providing the father with two so called "daddy-months". In addition, the ceiling on health care costs makes it easier, relative to other nations, for Swedish workers to take time off for medical reasons.
The Swedish welfare system remains generous, but a recession in the 1990s forced an introduction of a number of reforms, such as education vouchers in 1992 and decentralisation of some types of healthcare services to municipal control. [7]
The welfare state requires high taxes, but the population is generally affirmative of this. Sweden has a two step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20-25% that kicks in when you earn more than about 300 000 SEK. The employing company pays an additional 32% of so called Employers fee. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens except food (12% VAT) and transports and books (6% VAT). Certain items are taxed at higher rates, e.g. petrol/diesel, new cars and alcoholic beverages.
The high rates of income taxation in combination with very influential labour unions have kept differences in income at a minimum, resulting in little reward for individuals going through higher education as compared to individuals who start working for a living at an earlier age. [edit]
Education
Main article: Education in Sweden
As part of its social welfare system, Sweden provides an extensive childcare system that guarantees a place for all young children from 1-5 years old in a public day-care facility. Between ages 6-16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. After completing the ninth grade, 90% continue with a three year upper secondary school leading sometimes to a vocational diploma and always to the qualifications for further studies at a university or university college (högskola). [edit]
Culture A typical 19th, early 20th century summer cottage (stuga) in the rural countryside, painted in the traditional Swedish Falu red. Enlarge A typical 19th, early 20th century summer cottage (stuga) in the rural countryside, painted in the traditional Swedish Falu red.
Main article: Culture of Sweden
Swedish authors of worldwide recognition include Henning Mankell, Carolus Linnaeus (the father of botany), Emanuel Swedenborg, August Strindberg, Selma Lagerlöf, Vilhelm Moberg, Harry Martinson and Astrid Lindgren, the author of the beloved Pippi Longstocking books.
Sweden's most well-known artists are painters Carl Larsson, Anders Zorn, and Alexander Roslin, and the sculptors Tobias Sergel and Carl Milles.
Many well-known inventions and discoveries, historical and modern, were made by Swedes. Some notable figures are Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius, Baltzar von Platen, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, John Ericsson, Anders Jonas Ångström, Lars Magnus Ericsson, Svante Arrhenius, Arvid Carlsson, Håkan Lans.
Swedish 20th century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmakers Ingmar Bergman and Bo Widerberg received Academy Awards, and actresses Greta Garbo, Ingrid Bergman, Ann-Margret, Lena Olin, Zarah Leander, and Anita Ekberg made careers abroad. The actor Max von Sydow is also worth mentioning. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson and Lasse Hallström have received international recognition.
[edit]
Music
Further information: Music of Sweden, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
Ebba Grön, early Swedish punk band Enlarge Ebba Grön, early Swedish punk band
The best-known opera singers are the 19th century soprano Jenny Lind and the 20th century tenor Jussi Björling, who had great success abroad. Björling is considered by many to be the epitome of a great tenor. Also sopranos Christina Nilsson, Birgit Nilsson, and tenor Nicolai Gedda, baritone Håkan Hagegård and the contemporary mezzo-soprano Anne-Sofie von Otter are worth mentioning.
Some of the most successful Swedish popular music artists are ABBA, In Flames, Europe, HammerFall, Roxette, Gyllene Tider, Ace of Base, Army of Lovers, The Cardigans and guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen. A number of bands with less emphasis on pop music have come out of the country in recent years, including Dungen, Blindside, Clawfinger, Magnus Uggla, The Sounds, The Hives, Refused, Millencolin, The (International) Noise Conspiracy, Sahara Hotnights, The Hellacopters, The Soundtrack of Our Lives, Silverbullit, Kent, Infinite Mass, A*Teens, Mando Diao and Looptroop. In underground circles, Sweden is known for a large number of death metal and black metal acts such as Bathory, Meshuggah, The Haunted, Therion, Cemetary, Amon Amarth, Opeth, Naglfar, Arch Enemy, Nightrage, Dark Tranquillity, Entombed, Dissection, At The Gates, Hypocrisy, Grave, Candlemass, Dismember, Marduk, Unleashed and Soilwork, as well as Progressive bands like The Flower Kings, Evergrey and Pain of Salvation. Sweden is also responsible for the Swechno scene, offering a distinct house and techno sound. More recently, the so-called Swedish House Mafia including Steve Angello, Sebastian Ingrosso, Axwell, and Eric Prydz have topped the house music charts and DJ top 10s around the world. There is also a well known Swedish punk band called Ebba Grön and in the synth world, S.P.O.C.K is still going strong after 18 years. [edit]
Media
For more details on this topic, see Media in Sweden.
Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are Dagens Nyheter (centrist), Göteborgs-Posten (centrist), Svenska Dagbladet (consevative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (earlier left-wing, now centrist) and Expressen (centrist).
The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was originally founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by The Local.
For many years Swedish television consisted solely of the two channels broadcast by the public service company Sveriges Television, which, as in most other European countries, is financed through a radio and TV license. But in 1987 the first commercial Scandinavian channel, TV3, started transmitting from London, and today there are five free-to-air channels in the terrestrial network, which is currentlly is switching from analogue to digital, However, most Swedes have access to numerous other free and pay channels as well, through cable or satellite TV. [edit]
Holidays
For more details on this topic, see Holidays in Sweden.
Midsummer's Eve, painting by Anders Zorn Enlarge Midsummer's Eve, painting by Anders Zorn
Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer, celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night on April 30 lighting bonfires; Labour Day on May 1st is dedicated to Socialistic demonstrations; and December 13th, the day of Saint Lucia the lightgiver. June 6 is National Day of Sweden and as of 2005 a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have kräftskivor (crayfish parties). More regional variants are the surströmming parties in Northern Sweden (surströmming is a type of fermented fish), and ålegillar (eel parties) in Skåne. The Sami, Sweden's indigenous minority, have their holiday on February 6th. [edit]
Cuisine
Main article: Swedish cuisine
Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Norway), is traditionally simple. Fish, meat and potatoes play prominent roles. Spices are sparse. Famous dishes include Swedish meatballs (köttbullar—tr aditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam), plättar (Swedish pancakes, served with jam) lutfisk, the smörgås (open-faced sandwich), and the famous 'Smörgåsbord'. [edit]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Sweden
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating. The two main spectator sports are football (soccer) and ice hockey. Some notable Swedish football stars include Zlatan Ibrahimovic, Henrik Larsson and Fredrik Ljungberg. Swedish hockey players have often been regarded as some of the best in their sport. Famous Swedish hockey players include: Bengt Gustafsson, Håkan Loob, Peter Forsberg, Markus Näslund, Mats Sundin, Daniel Alfredsson, Nicklas Lidström, Daniel Sedin, Henrik Sedin, Börje Salming, Mattias Norström, Tomas Sandström, Pelle Lindbergh and Henrik Lundqvist.
Second to football, horse sports have the highest number of practitioners, mostly women. Thereafter follow golf, track and field, and the team sports of handball, floorball, basketball and in northern parts bandy. American sports such as baseball and American football are also practised but have no widespread popularity.
Successful tennis players include former world No. 1's Björn Borg, Mats Wilander and Stefan Edberg; in skiing sports, Ingemar Stenmark, Pernilla Wiberg and Anja Pärson have all had dominating periods in alpine skiing, as have Sixten Jernberg, Gunde Svan, Per Elofsson and Thomas Wassberg in cross country skiing. In ski jumping, Jan Boklöv revolutionised the sport with his new technique, the V-style.
A number of Swedes have been internationally successful in athletics. In the 1940s runner Gunder Hägg dominated middle distance. In recent years, stars include high jumpers such as the European record holder Patrik Sjöberg, Kajsa Bergqvist, and Athens Olympic gold medallist Stefan Holm. Two other Swedish athletes won gold medals in the 2004 Olympic Games: heptathlete Carolina Klüft and triple jumper Christian Olsson.
Other famous Swedish athletes include the heavyweight boxing champion Ingemar Johansson, golfer Annika Sörenstam, former five times World table tennis Champion Jan-Ove Waldner and the World Speedway Champion Tony Rickardsson.
In schools, on meadows and in parks, the game brännboll, a sport similar to baseball, is commonly played for fun. Other leisure sports are the historical game of kubb and boules among the older generation. [edit]
Religion
Main article: Church of Sweden
Before the 11th century, people of Sweden adhered to Norse religion, worshipping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianisation in the 11th century, the laws of the country were changed, forbidding worship of other deities.
After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s the Church and State were united, abolishing the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops, and in the long run allowing only Lutheranism to prevail. This was not a process completed until the Uppsala Synod 1593. During the era following the Reformation period, usually known as the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, in the 17th century, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutchmen and Walloons who played a significant role in trade and industry, were quietly tolerated as long as they kept a low religious profile. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Not until liberalisation in the late 18th century, believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Catholicism, were allowed to openly live and work in Sweden, although it remained illegal until 1860 for Lutheran Swedes to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw other Christian denominations, such as the Episcopal Church; and towards the end of the century secularism began attracting attention, leading people to distance themselves from Church rituals such as baptism. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called dissenter law of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was established in the Law on Freedom of Religion in 1951. Today about 78% of Swedes belong to the Church of Sweden, but the number is decreasing by about one percent every year, and church services are sparsely attended (hovering in the single digit percentages of the population)[8]. Also of significance are the 200,000 to 400,000 Muslims in Sweden.[9].
According to the most recent Eurostat "Eurobarometer" poll, in 2005 [10], only 23% of Swedish citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 53% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 23% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force". This, according to the survey, would make Swedes the third least religious people in the 25-member European Union. [edit]
International rankings
* Sweden Summary Amnesty Report 2005 * CIA World Factbook - GDP - PPP per capita o 2004: 26th of 232 countries [11] * Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers (2004) Report (PDF file) o Mothers' index rank: 1st of 119 countries o Women's index rank: 1st of 119 countries o Children's index rank: 10th of 119 countries o Infant mortality rate: lowest o % women with seats in the national government: 50% (highest) * UN Human Development Index (2004) o 2nd of 177 countries * World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report [12] (2004) o 3rd of 104 countries
[edit]
Notes
1. ↑ For instance expressed thus: As regards social evils generally, however, the low, though undoubtedly improving, standard of Sweden has had one of its chief reasons in the national intemperance. article Sweden in the Online 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. ([13] 2. ↑ The difference between "open unemployment" and "real unemployment" has been a politically disputed question for a long time in Sweden. Many unemployed are automatically enrolled in Work guidance projects, serving little purpose except keeping them out of the statistics, and officially discounting them as unemployed. Figures in the article are calculated based on information from the Moderate Party website [14] (In Swedish ). 3. ↑ Church of Sweden, Members 1978-2004, PDF document 4. ↑ Swedish Muslim Association 5. ↑ Eurostat poll on the social and religious beliefs of Europeans Eurobarometer, (PDF format)
[edit]
References
* CIA World Factbook - Sweden * United States Department of State - Sweden
[edit]
See also
* Provinces of Sweden * Allemansrätten (Right of public access to the wilderness) * Catholic Church of Sweden * Communications in Sweden * Ethnic Swedes * Islam in Sweden * Government agencies in Sweden * Foreign relations of Sweden * Nobel Prize * List of Sweden-related topics * Swedish Armed Forces o List of Swedish regiments * Non-governmental organizations in Sweden o Postage stamps and postal history of Sweden * Reporters without borders World-wide Press Freedom Index 2002: Rank 11 out of 139 countries * Swedish Royal Academies * Tourism in Sweden * Svenska Scoutrådet
Portal:Sweden Sweden Portal Find more information on Sweden by searching Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Images and media from Commons News stories from Wikinews [edit]
External links
* Travel guide to Sweden from Wikitravel * VisitSweden.com - The Official Travel and Tourism Site * SWEDEN.SE - The Official Gateway to Sweden * The Local - Sweden's news in English, commercial * Radio Sweden (in English) Public service * The Swedish Government - Official site * Historical Statistics of Sweden * Study in Sweden - Guide for prospective students * World History Database Chronology of Sweden
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Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Republic of Turkey Flag of Turkey Coat of arms of Turkey Flag Coat of arms Motto: Turkish: Yurtta Sulh, Cihanda Sulh (English: "Peace at Home, Peace in the World") Anthem: İstiklâl Marşı Location of Turkey Capital Ankara 41°1′ N 28°57′ E Largest city Istanbul Official language(s) Turkish Government President Prime Minister Republic Ahmet Necdet Sezer Recep Tayyip Erdoğan National Day - Formation of Parliament - Victory Day - Declaration of Republic 23 April 1920 30 August 1922 29 October 1923 Area - Total
- Water (%) 780,580 km² (36th) 301,384 sq mi 1.3 Population - 2006 est. - 2000 census - Density 70,413,958 (17th 1) 67,844,903 90/km² (82th 1) 230/sq mi GDP (PPP) - Total - Per capita 2006 estimate 611.6 billion (18th) 8,393 (73nd) HDI (2003) 0.750 (94th) – medium Currency New Turkish Lira2 (YTL) Time zone - Summer (DST) EET (UTC+3) CEST (UTC+2) Internet TLD .tr Calling code +90 1.) Population & Density ranks based on 2005 figures 2.) Since January 1, 2005, the New Turkish Lira (Yeni Türk Lirası) replaced the old Turkish Lira.
The Republic of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti)listen (help·info) or simply Turkey (Türkiye) is a Eurasian country located mainly in the Anatolian peninsula in Asia, with a small portion of its territory located in the Balkan region of Southeastern Europe. Turkey borders eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia, Armenia and the Nakhichevan exclave of Azerbaijan to the northeast; Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Republic of Turkey is a democratic laic constitutional republic, whose political system was established in 1923. Turkey is a member state of the United Nations, NATO, OSCE, OECD, OIC and the Council of Europe. In October 2005, the European Union opened accession negotiations with Ankara. Due to its strategic location straddling Europe and Asia and between three seas, Turkey has been a historical crossroads and economic centre, the homeland of and battleground between several great civilizations.
History
Main article: History of Turkey, History of the Turkish people
History of Republic of Turkey Series War of Independence | Single Party Period | Multi-Party Period | Timeline | Atatürk
The Turkish Republic was established on 29 October 1923 from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire. The origins of modern Turkey can be traced back to the arrival of Turkish tribes in Anatolia in the 11th century, under the Seljuks. Following the defeat of the Seljuk Turks by the Mongols, a power vacuum allowed for the new Ottoman dynasty to establish itself as a powerful force in the region. In the 16th century, at the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire grew to cover Anatolia, North Africa, the Middle East, South-Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Following its defeat in World War I, Western powers sought to partition the empire through the Treaty of Sevres. With the support of the Allies, Greece had occupied Izmir as provided for in the Treaty. On 19 May 1919 this prompted the beginning of a nationalist movement under the command of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself in the Battle of Gallipoli. Kemal Pasha sought to revoke the terms of treaty which had been signed by the Sultan in Istanbul, this involved mobilizing every available part of Turkish society in what would become the Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: Kurtuluş Savaşı).
By 18 September 1922 the occupying Entente (Britain and France) armies were repelled and the country was liberated. This was followed by the abolition of the Sultan's office by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 1 November 1922, thus ending 631 years of Ottoman rule. In 1923 the Treaty of Lausanne recognized the sovereignty of a new Turkish Republic, Kemal was granted the name Atatürk (meaning father of Turks) by the National Assembly and would become the Republic's first President. Atatürk instituted a wide-range of far reaching reforms with the aim of modernizing the new Republic from the remnants of its Ottoman past. There are many different ways of classifying the history of Turkey. The least disputed classification is based on three global periods: The war of independence, the single-party period and the multi-party period. Even if these periods have distinct characteristics, some issues do repeat in every period with subtle differences. [edit]
Politics
Main Articles: Politics of Turkey, Constitution of Turkey Turkey's political system is based on separation of powers. Its constitution is called 'Anayasa' (Main Law).
Head of State - The function of Head of State is performed by the President "Cumhurbaşkanı&quo t;. A president is elected every seven years by the Grand National Assembly. The President does not have to be a member of parliament.
Executive power - Executive power rests in the Prime Minister "Başbakan" and the Council of Ministers "Bakanlar Kurulu". The Ministers have to be parliamentarians, however; the Prime Minister is no longer required to be a parliamentarian. The Prime Minister is elected by the parliament with a vote of trust to his government.
Parliament - Legislative power rests in the 550-seat Grand National Assembly "Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi", representing 81 provinces. The Grand National Assembly is elected every five years. To be represented in Parliament, a party must win at least 10% of the national vote in a national parliamentary election. Independent candidates may run. To be elected, they must win at least 10% of the vote in the province from which they are running.
Kemal Atatürk - Father of the Republic
Ahmet Necdet Sezer - President
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan - Prime Minister
Turkish Electoral System [edit]
Legal System
Main article: Legal System in Republic of Turkey
The freedom and independence of the Judicial System is protected within the constitution. There is no organization, person, or institution which can interfere in the running of the courts, and the executive and legislative structures must obey the courts' decisions. The courts, which are independent in discharging their duties, must explain each ruling on the basis of the provisions of the Constitution, the laws, jurisprudence, and their personal convictions.
The Judicial system is highly structured. Turkish courts have no jury system; judges render decisions after establishing the facts in each case based on evidence presented by lawyers and prosecutors. For minor civil complaints and offenses, justices of the peace take the case. This court has a single judge. It has jurisdiction over misdemeanors and petty crimes, with penalties ranging from small fines to brief prison sentences. Three-judge courts of first instance have jurisdiction over major civil suits and serious crimes. Any conviction in a criminal case can be taken to a court of Appeals for judicial review.
All courts are open to the public. When a case is closed to the public, the court has to publish the reason. Judge and prosecution structures are secured by the constitution. Except with their own consent, no judge or prosecutor can be dismissed, have his/her powers restricted, or be forced to retire. However, the retirement age restrictions do apply. The child courts have their own structure.
A judge can be audited for misconduct only with the Ministry of Justice's permission, in which case a special task force of justice experts and senior judges is formed.
The High Council of Judges and Public Prosecutors is the principal body charged with responsibility for ensuring judicial integrity, and determines professional judges acceptance and court assignments.
Turkey is adapting a new national "Judicial Networking System" (UYAP). The court decisions and documents (case info, expert reports, etc) will be accessible via the Internet.
Turkey accepts the European Court of Human Rights' decisions as a higher court decision. Turkey also accepts as legally binding any decisions on international agreements. [edit]
Foreign Relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Republic of Turkey
The modern Turkish Republic, which emerged from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire, is pursuing peaceful policies in a region that has many conflicts. Some of these conflicts are result of the complications that arose at the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, and some are as old as Anatolian history. In this geopolitical region, the determining factor of Turkey's policies is its democratic and secular political system, its choice of a robust, free, market economy (Customs Union with the EU) and a social tradition of reconciling the modern society with cultural identity, and guided through the legacy of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's policy of "Peace at Home and Peace Abroad".
As detailed in the article "foreign relations of Turkey", Turkey pursues its stated objective by following a principled and proactive foreign policy that employs a broad spectrum of peaceful means. These entail, inter-alia, membership in the NATO Alliance and full integration with the European Union, taking the lead in regional cooperation processes, promoting good neighbourly relations and economic cooperation, extending humanitarian aid and assistance to the less fortunate, participating in peace-keeping operations and contributing to the resolution of disputes as well as post-conflict reconciliation and reconstruction efforts. [edit]
Military
Main article: Turkish Armed Forces
Turkish Armed Forces (Turkish: Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri TSK) consists of the Army, Navy (includes Naval Air and Naval Infantry) and Air Force. The Gendarmerie and Coast Guard operate as the parts of Dept. of Internal Affairs in peacetime and are subordinate to the Army and Navy Commands respectively. In wartime, both have law enforcement and military functions.
The Commander-in-Chief is Chief General Staff General Hilmi Özkök.
After becoming a member of the NATO Alliance on February 18, 1952, the Turkish Republic initiated a comprehensive modernization program for its Armed Forces. Towards the end of the 1980s, a restructuring process was initiated in the Turkish Armed Forces.
The Turkish Armed forces, with a combined troop strength of 680,000 people, is the second largest standing force in NATO after the United States. Every fit male Turkish citizen has to serve military service for varying time periods ranging between 1 month to 15 months depending on education, job location, and occasional paid options.
[edit]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Turkey
Enlarge
The territory of Turkey extends from 36° to 42° N and from 26° to 45° E in Eurasia. It is roughly rectangular in shape and is 1,660 kilometers (1,031 mi) wide. Turkey's area inclusive of lakes is 814,578 square kilometres (314,510 sq mi), of which 790,200 square kilometres (305,098 sq mi) occupies the Anatolian peninsula (also known as Asia Minor) in Asia, and 3% or 24,378 square kilometres (9,412 sq mi) are located in Europe. Many geographers consider Turkey politically and culturally in Europe, although it is a transcontinental country between Asia and Europe. The land borders of Turkey total 2,573 kilometres (1,599 mi), and the coastlines (including islands) total another 8,333 kilometres (5,178 mi).
Turkey is generally divided into seven regions: the Marmara, the Aegean, the Mediterranean, Central Anatolia, East Anatolia, Southeast Anatolia and the Black Sea region. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately 1/6 of Turkey's total land area.
Turkey forms a bridge between Europe and Asia, with the division between the two running from the Black Sea (Karadeniz) to the north down along the Bosporus (Istanbul Boğazı) strait through the Sea of Marmara (Marmara Denizi) and the Dardanelles (Çanakkale Boğazı) strait to the Aegean Sea (Ege Denizi) and the larger Mediterranean Sea (Akdeniz) to the south. The Anatolian peninsula or Anatolia (Anadolu) consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, in between the Köroğlu and East-Black Sea mountain range to the north and the Taurus Mountains (Toros Dağları) to the south. To the east is found a more mountainous landscape, home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates (Fırat), Tigris (Dicle) and the Araks (Aras), as well as Lake Van (Van Gölü) and Mount Ararat (Ağrı Dağı), Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,853 ft). Fault lines & Earthquakes Enlarge Fault lines & Earthquakes
Turkey is also prone to very severe earthquakes. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey, leading to the creation of the Black Sea. There is an earthquake fault line across the north of the country from west to east. Within the last century there were many earthquakes along this fault line, the sizes and locations of these earthquakes can be seen on the Fault lines & Earthquakes image. This image also includes a small scaled map that shows other fault lines in Turkey.
The climate is a Mediterranean temperate climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet and cold winters, though conditions can be much harsher in the more arid interior. Average Temp High Temp Low Temp Average Hum. Average Rain Marmara Region 13.5°C 56.3°F 44.6°C 112.3°F -27.8°C -18.0°F 71.2 % 564.3 mm 22.2 in Aegean Region 15.4°C 59.7°F 48.5°C 119.3°F -45.6°C -50.1°F 60.9 % 706.0 mm 27.8 in Mediteranian Region 16.4°C 61.5°F 45.6°C 114.1°F -33.5°C -28.3°F 63.9 % 706.0 mm 27.8 in Black Sea Region 12.3°C 54.1°F 44.2°C 111.6°F -32.8°C -27.0°F 70.9 % 828.5 mm 32.6 in Central Anatolia 10.6°C 51.1°F 41.8°C 107.2°F -36.2°C -33.2°F 62.6 % 392.0 mm 15.4 in East Anatolia 9.7°C 49.5°F 44.4°C 111.9°F -45.6°C -50.1°F 60.9 % 569.0 mm 22.4 in Southeast Anatolia 16.5°C 61.7°F 48.4°C 119.1°F -24.3°C -11.7°F 53.4 % 584.5 mm 23.0 in [edit]
Administrative Divisions
Main article: Provinces of Turkey
Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (iller in Turkish; singular il). Each province is divided into subprovinces (ilçeler; singular ilçe). The province usually bears the same name as the provincial capital, also called the central subprovince; exceptions are Hatay (capital: Antakya), Kocaeli (capital: İzmit) and Sakarya (capital: Adapazarı). Major provinces include: Istanbul 11 million, Ankara 4 million, Izmir 3.5 million, Bursa 2.1 million, Konya 2.2 million, Adana 1.8 million.
The capital of Turkey is the city of Ankara, but the largest city is İstanbul. Other important cities include İzmir, Bursa, Adana, Trabzon, Malatya, Gaziantep, Erzurum, Kayseri, İzmit (Kocaeli), Konya, Mersin, Diyarbakır, Antalya and Samsun. See the list of cities in Turkey. [edit]
Economy Economy of the Republic of Turkey
Fiscal year: calendar year Trade organisations: BSEC, OECD, OID, WTO, customs union with the EU Statistics GNI per capita: 20% GDP by sector: Inflation: 7.7% (2005) Pop below poverty line: 20% Labour force: 25,900,000 Labour force by occupation: Unemployment: 14.3% (plus underemployment of 4.0%) (2004 est.) Main industries: Trading Partners Exports: $82bn Partners: Germany 13.9%, UK 8.8%, U.S. 7.7%, Italy 7.4%, France 5.8%, Spain 4.2% Imports: $137bn Partners: Germany 12.9%, Russia 9.3%, Italy 7.1%, France 6.4%, U.S. 4.8%, China 4.6%, UK 4.4% Public Finances Public debt: 57.8% of GDP (2005) External debt: $145B Revenues: $190B Expenses: $210B Economic aid: {{{Economic_aid}}}
Main article: Economy of Turkey
Turkey's economy is a complex mix of modern industry and commerce along with a traditional agriculture sector that in 2001 still accounted for 40% of employment. Turkey has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. [edit]
Agriculture
Turkey has been self-sufficient in food production since the 1980s. The agricultural output has been growing at a respectable rate. However, since the 1980's agriculture has been in a state of decline compared to the total economy. Agricultural loans are issued with negative interest rates. Today, many of the institutions established between 1930 and 1980 continue to play important roles in the practices of farmers. Many old agricultural attitudes remain widespread. These traditions are expected to change with the EU accession process. Turkey is continuously improving the process of dismantling the incentive system; fertiliser and pesticide subsidies have been curtailed, and remaining price supports have been gradually converted to floor prices. The government has also initiated many planned projects, such as the G.A.P project. G.A.P shows a very promising future for the southeastern agriculture.
For more details on this topic, see Southeastern Anatolia Project.
Given all the efforts of the government, agricultural extension and research services are poorly organised in Turkey. This has been attributed to shortages of qualified advisers, transportation, and equipment. Agricultural research is distributed among nearly 100 government institutions and universities. The inability to spread the use of new technologies has been attributed to a reluctance of trained personnel to work in the field. The pay disparity in this sector is traditionally very high and incentives to train people do not cover this gap. Research is organised by commodity, with independent units for such major crops as cotton, tobacco, and citrus fruit. Observers note that coordination of the efforts of different research units and links between extension services are inadequate.
The livestock industry, compared to initial years of the republic showed little improvement in productivity, and the later years of the decade saw stagnation. However livestock products, including meat, milk, wool, and eggs, contributed to more than 1/3 of the value of agricultural output. [edit]
Industrial sector
The largest industry - and largest exporter - is textiles and clothing, which is almost entirely in private hands, next to petroleum refineries (Izmir, Istanbul, Adana, and Kayseri), Iron and Steel Mill at Karabuk and Eregli Iron and Steel works. Also, brick, tile, glass, leather, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, white goods, metalworking, cordage, flour milling, vegetable oil, sugar beet, paper, plastic production and rubber processing are counted amongst important branches of industry.
The automotive industry, which is the seventh largest in Europe, is also an important part of the economy, since 1970s. Most of the production of machines, consumer goods, and tools take place in hundreds of small machine shops. Large factories of international firms such as Mercedes, FIAT, and Toyota are providing jobs for thousands of people. [edit]
Service sector
The road network was an estimated 382,397 km in 1999, including 95,599 km of paved roads and 1,749 km of motorways. The rail network was 8,682 km in 1999, including 2,133 km of electrified track. There are 1,200 km of navigable waterways. There were 118 airports in 1999, including six international airports in Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Trabzon, Dalaman and Antalya.
For more details on this topic, see Transport in Turkey.
Telecommunications were liberalised in 2004 after the creation of the Telecommunication Authority. Private sector companies operate in mobile telephony and Internet access. There were 19 million fixed phone lines, 36 million mobile phones, and 12 million Internet users by the August, 2005.
For more details on this topic, see Communications in Turkey.
[edit]
Tourism sector
Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fast developing sectors in Turkey. According to the travel agencies TUI and Thomas Cook, 31 hotels out of 100 best hotels of the world are located in Turkey.
In the year 2005 Turkey, 21,122,798 tourists vacationed in Turkey. The total revenue was $18.2 billion and with an average expenditure of $679 per tourist. Over the years, Turkey has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans, often competing with Greece, Italy and Spain. Turkish destinations such as Antalya and Muğla (sometimes called the Turkish Riviera) have become very popular among European tourists. [edit]
Financial sector
"The Central Bank of Republic of Turkey" was founded in 1930, as a privileged joint-stock company. It possesses the sole right to issue notes. It also has the obligation to provide for the monetary requirements of the state agricultural and commercial enterprises. All foreign exchange transfers are exclusively handled by the central bank. The bank has 25 domestic branches, as well as branches in New York, London, Frankfurt, and Zurich.
In 1998 there were 72 banks. In late 2000 and early 2001 a growing trade deficit and weaknesses in the banking sector plunged the economy into crisis. There was a recession followed by the floating of the lira. This financial breakdown brought the number of banks to 31. Currently more then 34% of the assets are concentrated in the Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankasi), Housing Bank (Yapi Kredi Bankasi), IsBank and Akbank. There are also Middle Eastern Trading Banks, which practice an Islamic type of trading. The five big state-owned banks restructured during 2001. Political involvement was minimized and loaning policies were changed. However, over-staffing remains a problem.
The Istanbul Stock Exchange opened in 1985 and Istanbul Gold Exchange in 1995.
Government regulations passed in 1929 required all insurance companies to reinsure 30% of each policy with National Reinsurance Corp. In 1954, life insurance was exempted from this requirement. The insurance market is officially regulated through the Ministery of Commerce.
Foreign direct investment in Turkey remained low - less than USD 1 billion annually, up to 2004. Results in 2002 were much better, because of strong financial support from the IMF and tighter fiscal policy. Continued slow global growth and serious political tensions in the Middle East cast a shadow over growth prospects in the future. As of 2005, foreign direct investment has exceeded US$3 billion, and the foreign investment in the first quarter of 2006 has already exceeded this amount.
In recent years the economic situation has been marked by erratic economic growth and serious imbalances. Real GNP growth has exceeded 6% in many years, but this strong expansion has been interrupted by sharp declines in output in 1994, 1999, and 2001. Meanwhile the public sector fiscal deficit has regularly exceeded 10% of GDP - due in large part to the huge burden of interest payments, which in 2001 accounted for more than 50% of central government spending - while inflation has remained in the high double digit range. Since 2003, the inflation has lowered to single digits, and the economy is showing an average growth of 6.2%, between 2003-2005. Fiscal deficit is benefiting (though in small amount) from large industry privatizations.
For a time, the lira was synonymous with an low-valued currency. Recently, the "New Turkish lira" was introduced, worth 1 million old lira. (In essence, they "slashed off some zeroes".) This was meant to be a symbol of a stronger currency, after a long period of high inflation that had devalued the currency so greatly. [edit]
Natural resources
Main article: Natural Resources in Republic of Turkey
Turkey is an oil producer, but the level of production isn't enough to make the country self sufficient. As a result, it is a net oil and gas importer.
The pipeline network in Turkey included 1,738 km for crude oil, 2,321 km for petroleum products, and 708 km for natural gas in 1999. Several major new pipelines are planned, especially the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline for Caspian oilfields, the longest one in the world, which recently opened in 2005.
According to the CIA World Factbook, other natural resources include coal, iron ore, copper, chromium, uranium, antimony, mercury, gold, barite, borate, celestite (strontium), emery, feldspar, limestone, magnesite, marble, perlite, pumice, pyrites (sulfur), clay, arable land, hydropower.
Boron, found abundant in the ore borax, is very rich in Turkey. The country is a very big producer of boron, alongside the United States.
Also, with 127,000 tonnes, Turkey has the world's largest osmium reserves, followed by Bulgaria whose reserves reach about 2,500 tonnes. [edit]
Energy
To cover the increasing energy needs of its population and ensure the continued raising of its living standard, Turkey plans several nuclear power plants. Nuclear power proposals were presented as early as in the 1960s, but plans were repeatedly canceled even after bids were made by interested manufacturers because of high costs and safety concerns. Turkey has always chosen Candu nuclear reactors because they burn natural uranium which is cheap and available locally and because they can be refueled online. This has caused uneasy feelings to Turkey's neighbors because the complexity of such reactors makes them less safe and because they are suitable for producing weapons grade plutonium. [edit]
Employment
Turkey's labor force is flexible, with a wide spectrum of skills from the unskilled to highly educated. Turkey is obliged to apply EU (European Union) employment and social laws to qualify for membership. [edit]
Society [edit]
Demographics Demographics of the Republic of Turkey
1961-2005 Size: 73.5 million (2006 est.) Growth: 1.06% (2006 est.) Birth: 16.62 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death: 5.97 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Life expectancy: 72.62 years (2006 est.) Life expectancy (m): 70.18 years Life expectancy (f): 75.18 years Fertility: 1.92 children born/woman (2006 est.) Age Structure: 0-14 years: 25.5% (male 9,133,226; female 8,800,070) 15-64 years: 67.7% (male 24,218,277; female 23,456,761) 65-0ver years: 6.8% (male 2,198,073; female 2,607,551) (2006 est.) Sex Ratio: Total: {{{total_mf_ratio}}} At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65-0ver years: 0.84 male(s)/female Nationality: nationality: noun: Turk(s) adjective: Turkish Major ethnic: Turks Minor ethnic: Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Bosniaks, Chechens, Circassians, Georgians, Kurds, Laz and Zazas. Minorities: Armenians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Hamshenis, Jews, Levantines, Ossetians, Pomaks and Roma Language: Official: Turkish Spoken: Turkish, Kurdish, Azeri, Kabardian
Main article: Demographics of Turkey
The legal use of term "Turkish" (a citizen of Turkey) is different than the ethnic definition (an ethnic Turk). However, the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. The ethnic minorities include, besides the legally defined minorities, Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Bosniaks, Chechens, Circassians, Georgians, Ingushetians, Kabardins, Kurds, Laz, Molokans and Zazas.
The term "minority" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey, since the Turkish State only considers the communities mentioned in the text of Treaty of Lausanne. Minorities include Armenians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Hamshenis, Jews, Levantines, Ossetians, Pomaks and Roma (Roma is a name for Gypsies).
The largest group of non-Turkic ethnicity are the Kurds, a distinct ethnic group concentrated in the east. The 1965 census determined that 7.1% of the population used Kurdish as their primary language and the knowledge of the language was stated by the 12.7% of the population in total, but there are many Turkish-speaking Kurds. According to the CIA fact book [1], 20% of the population are estimated to be ethnic Kurds. However, there are no hard figures for the Kurdish population available.
Due to a demand for an increased labour force in Western Europe between 1960 and 1980 many Turkish citizens, emigrated to West Germany, the Netherlands, France and other Western European countries, forming a significant overseas population. [edit]
Education
Main article: Turkish education system
Education is compulsory and free from ages 7 to 15. There are around 820 higher education institutes including universities, with a total student enrollment of over 1 million. The 15 main universities are in Istanbul and Ankara. Tertiary education is the responsibility of the Higher Education Council, and funding is provided by the state. From 1998 the universities were given greater autonomy, and were encouraged to raise funds from partnerships with industry.
There are approximately 85 universities in Turkey. There are two types of universities, state and (private) foundational. State universities charge very low fees and foundationals are highly expensive with fees up to $15 000 or sometimes even more. The capacity in total of Turkish universities is approximately 300.000. Some universities can compete with the best world universities whereas some are unable to provide the necessary educational standards due to financial problems and underfunding. However, university students are a lucky minority in Turkey. Universities provide either two or four years of education for undergraduate studies. For graduate studies, two further years is necessary, as is typical throughout the world.
The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey coordinates basic and applied research and development. There are 64 research institutes and organisations. R&D strengths include agriculture, forestry, health, biotechnology, nuclear technologies, minerals, materials, IT, and defence. [edit]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Turkey
Turkey has a very diverse culture derived from various elements of the Ottoman Empire, European, and the Islamic traditions. As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-driven former Ottoman Empire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state and religion, the increase in the methods of artistic expression followed. During the first years of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources into the fine arts, such as paintings, sculptures and architecture amongst other things. This was done as both a process of modernisation and of creating a cultural identity. Today the Turkish economy is diverse enough to subsidise individual artists with great freedom. Culture of Republic of Turkey Music Cinema Poetry Prose Turkish Cuisine History of Turkish Literature [edit]
Religion
Main article: Islam in Turkey
Nominally, 95%-96% of the population is Muslim. Most belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. About 15-20% of the population are Alevi Muslims. There is also a small but significant Twelver Shi'a minority, mainly of Azeri descent. The remaining 4%-5% of the population are of other religions, mostly Christian (Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic (Gregorian), Syriac Orthodox, Roman Catholics and Protestants), Jewish, Bahá'ís, Yezidis. Atheistic and Agnostic beliefs are widely held amongst the populace.
Unlike other Muslim-majority countries, there is a strong tradition of separation of church and state in Turkey. Even though the state does not have any/or promote any religion, it actively monitors the area between the religions. The constitutional rule that prohibits discrimination on religious grounds, is taken very seriously. The Turkish constitution recognises freedom of religion for individuals, and the religious communities are placed under the protection of state, but the constitution explicitly states that they cannot become involved in the political process, by forming a religious party for example. No party can claim that it represents a form of religious belief. However, the religious sensibilities are generally represented through conservative parties.
The mainstream Hanafite school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state, through Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Department of Religious Affairs). The Diyanet is the main Islamic framework established after abolition of the Ulama and Seyh-ul-Islam of the old régime. As a consequence, they control all mosques and Muslim clerics. Imams are trained in Imam vocational schools and at theology departments at universities. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give Fatwa judgements on Islamic issues. The department is criticised by some Alevi Muslims for not supporting their beliefs.
The Orthodox Patriarch (Patrik) governs the Greek-Orthodox Church in Turkey and acts as the spiritual leader of all Orthodox churches throughout the world, the Armenian Patrik the Armenian Church, while the Jewish community is lead by the Hahambasi, Turkey's Chief Rabbi, all based in Istanbul. The Jewish population in Turkey is one of the largest and most prominent outside of Israel. (See Jews of Turkey for more)
Because of different historical factors playing an important role in defining a Turkish identity, the culture of Turkey is an interesting combination of clear efforts to be "modern" and Western, combined with the necessity felt to maintain traditional religious and historical values.
See also: Judaism in Turkey, Roman Catholicism in Turkey [edit]
Images of Turkey
Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul
Ankara
Izmir
Izmir
Eskişehir
Edirne
Turkish architecture
Bursa
Antalya
Bolu
Fethiye
Antalya
Trabzon
Diyarbakir
Pamukkale
Göreme [edit]
See also
* List of Turkey-related topics * Festivals in Republic of Turkey * Museums in Republic of Turkey * Media in Republic of Turkey * Sports in Turkey * Holidays in Turkey * Laicism * Human rights in Turkey * Islam in Turkey * Türkiye İzcilik Federasyonu
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References
1. ↑ Atreya, Navita, McDowall, David, Ozbolat, "Asylum Seekers from Turkey: the Dangers They Flee", (Report of a mission to Turkey), Perihan, 28 February 2001)
1. ↑ CIA — The World Factbook. (HTML) CIA. URL accessed on 2006-03-11.
[edit]
External links Find more information on Turkey by searching Wikipedia's sister projects:
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Official Web Pages
* Presidency of the Republic of Turkey * The Grand National Assembly of Turkey * Turkish Armed Forces * Turkish Embassy in Washington D.C. * Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism * Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs * Information about Turkey on CIA world fact book * Virtual Historical Library of Turkey
Public Offices
* Mia(Ministry of İnterior Affairs * Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey * Competition Authority * Directorate General of Press And Information * Foreign Trade * National Intelligence Organisation * State Planning Organisation * Turkish Standards Institution * Turkish Treasury * Undersecretariat of Customs * National Library of Turkey
General Information
* A Useful Guide About Turkey Republic * BBC Country Profile: Turkey * All Information about Turkey * General information about Turkey * A Useful Guide About Turkey * About Turkey * A Discussion Board about Turkey both in English & Turkish * Turkey and the Balkans Discussion Forum * Headlines, Newswatch, weather, currency, directory,maps, photos, blog
Newspapers in English
* Zaman * Hurriyet * The New Anatolian * Turkish Weekly * Turkish Daily News * Ankara Post * Turks Daily
Tourism
* Tourism In Turkey * Turkey Guide and Travel Information * Categorised Pictures of Turkey * A Great Photo Archive About All Turkey * Go To Turkey * Traveller's guide Turkey's Black Sea Region * Info about Turkey's archaeological sites together with travel articles * Turkey Travel Planner
Economy
* Turkey taxes, business and economy * Turkey Economic Statistics * Business Guide of Turkey * Tax and Legal Information on Turkey
Other Web Pages
* Traditional Turkish-Islamic Arts Forum (Calligraphy-Marbling-Tez hip..) * Balkans nature and culture (eng) * An "All Video" Site About Turkey * Album of Turkey Images * Guide with Photographs * Over 7000 pictures, almost all cities * Pictures all about Turkey * Turkey in Pictures * Turkey Weather Forecast Information * Physical Map of Turkey * Turkey in Maps * International Strategic Research Organization, Ankara-based Turkish think-tank, site is in Turkish, English and Spanish * The latest Turkey bird flu news from around the globe * Free online Turkish course written in German with manu illustrations
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United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1 Flag of the United Kingdom Coat of arms of the United Kingdom Flag Coat of arms Motto: Dieu et mon droit (Royal motto; French for "God and my right") 3 Anthem: God Save the Queen4 Location of the United Kingdom Capital London 51°30′ N 0°7′ W Largest city London Official language(s) English de facto 5 Government Queen Prime Minister Constitutional monarchy Elizabeth II Tony Blair Establishment 18016 Area - Total - Water (%) 244,820 km² (80th) 1.34% Population - July 2004 est. - 2001 census - Density 59,834,300 7 (21st) 58,789,194 246.5/km² (33rd) GDP (PPP) - Total - Per capita 2004 estimate $1.736 trillion (6th) $28,938 (17th) HDI (2003) 0.939 (15th) – high Currency Pound sterling (£) (GBP) Time zone - Summer (DST) GMT (UTC+0) BST (UTC+1) Internet TLD .uk8 Calling code +44 1In the UK, some other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous (regional) languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, the UK's official name is as follows:
* Welsh: Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon * Scottish Gaelic: An Rìoghachd Aonaichte na Breatainn Mhòr agus Eirinn a Tuath * Irish: Ríocht Aontaithe na Breataine Móire agus Tuaisceart na hÉireann * Scots: Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Northren Ireland * Cornish: An Rywvaneth Unys a Vreten Veur hag Iwerdhon Glédh
2There is also a variant for use in Scotland, see Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom for details. 3 The Royal motto used in Scotland is Nemo Me Impune Lacessit (Latin for "No-one provokes me with impunity"). 4 De facto. 5Officially recognised languages: in Wales, Welsh; and in Scotland, Scottish Gaelic since 2005 Act. Norman French is also used for occasional items of official business. 6 Formed as United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Name changed to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927. 7 Official estimate provided by the UK Office for National Statistics [1]. 8 ISO 3166-1 is GB, but .gb is unused
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (usually referred to as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain), is a political union of four constituent countries: England, Scotland and Wales on the island of Great Britain, and Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland. These are collectively known as the Home Nations. It is governed as a constitutional monarchy and unitary state. The UK has several overseas territories, including Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands, and through the Crown has a constitutional relationship with the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. The UK has close relationships with the fifteen other Commonwealth Realms, which share the same monarch as head of state.
The UK occupies the largest part on the British Isles in northwestern Europe, with most of its territory and population on the island of Great Britain. It shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland on the island of Ireland and is otherwise surrounded by the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, the Irish Sea, and the Atlantic Ocean.
The UK has a highly developed economy and the fourth-largest Gross domestic product in the world. It is one of the most populous states of the European Union and is a founding partner of the UN (holding a permanent seat on the Security Council) and NATO. The UK is also one of the world's major nuclear powers.
History
Main article: History of the United Kingdom
Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland 1707, painting by Walter Thomas Monnington. Enlarge Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland 1707, painting by Walter Thomas Monnington.
The present United Kingdom is the latest of several unions formed over the last 840 years. Scotland and England have existed as separate political entities since the 9th century. Wales, under the control of English monarchs from the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, became part of the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Act 1535. With the Act of Union 1707, the independent states of England and Scotland, having been in personal union since 1603, agreed to a political union as the Kingdom of Great Britain.
The Act of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, which had been gradually brought under English control between 1169 and 1691, to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Independence for the now Republic of Ireland in 1922 brought the partition of the island of Ireland, with six of the nine counties of the province of Ulster remaining within the UK, which changed to the current name in 1929 in recognition. The British Empire in 1897. Enlarge The British Empire in 1897.
The United Kingdom, the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, is often credited with being the nation that "created the modern world", by playing a leading role in developing Western ideas of property, capitalism and parliamentary democracy—to say nothing of its part in advancing world literature, science and technology. At its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one quarter of the Earth's surface and encompassed a third of its population - making it the largest empire in history. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously depleted from the effects of World War I and World War II. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous nation.
The UK has been a member of the European Union since 1973. The attitude of the present government towards further integration is conservative, with the official opposition favouring a return of some powers and competencies to the UK. It has not chosen to adopt the Euro as domestic political opinion runs strongly against such a move, whilst the government itself has not seen fit to advance membership based on a judgement of the economic costs and benefits in doing so.
See also: List of monarchs in the British Isles, History of Britain, History of England, History of Ireland, History of Northern Ireland, History of Scotland, History of Wales, and UK local history terms
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Government and politics
Main article: Politics of the United Kingdom
Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom Enlarge Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair Enlarge Prime Minister Tony Blair
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, with executive power exercised on behalf of the Queen by the Prime Minister and other cabinet ministers who head departments. The cabinet, including the Prime Minister, and other ministers collectively make up Her Majesty's Government. These ministers are drawn from and are responsible to Parliament, the legislative body, which is traditionally considered to be "supreme" (that is, able to legislate on any matter and not bound by decisions of its predecessors). The UK is one of the few countries in the world today that does not have a codified constitution, relying instead on customs and separate pieces of constitutional law.
While the monarch is Head of State and theoretically holds all executive power, it is the Prime Minister who is the head of government. The government is answerable chiefly to the House of Commons and the Prime Minister is drawn from this chamber of Parliament by constitutional convention. The majority of cabinet members will be from the House of Commons, the rest from the House of Lords. Ministers do not, however, legally have to come from Parliament, though that is the modern day custom. The British system of government has been emulated around the world - a legacy of the United Kingdom's colonial past - most notably in the other Commonwealth Realms. The Prime Minister is chosen as the MP who can command a majority in the House of Commons - usually the leader of the largest party or, if there is no majority party, the largest coalition. The current Prime Minister is Tony Blair of the Labour Party, who has been in office since 1997.
In the United Kingdom the monarch has extensive theoretical powers, but his or her role is mainly, though not exclusively, ceremonial. The monarch is an integral part of Parliament (as the "Crown-in-Parliament ") and theoretically gives Parliament the power to meet and create legislation. An Act of Parliament does not become law until it has been signed by the Queen (known as Royal Assent), although no monarch has refused assent to a bill that has been approved by Parliament since Queen Anne in 1708). Although the abolition of the monarchy has been suggested several times, the popularity of the monarchy remains strong in spite of recent controversies. Support for a British republic usually fluctuates between 15% and 25% of the population, with roughly 10% undecided or indifferent [2]. The current monarch is Queen Elizabeth II who acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953.
Parliament is the national legislature of the United Kingdom. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom, according to the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty (however, questions over sovereignty have been brought forward due to the U.K's entry in to the European Union). It is bicameral, composed of the elected House of Commons and the unelected House of Lords, whose members are mostly appointed. The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two houses. The House of Commons houses 646 members who are directly elected from single-member constituencies based on population. The House of Lords has 724 members (though this number is not fixed), constituted of hereditary peers, life peers, and bishops of the Church of England. The Church of England is the established church of the state in England. The Palace of Westminster, on the banks of the River Thames, London houses the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Enlarge The Palace of Westminster, on the banks of the River Thames, London houses the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Since the 1920s, the two largest political parties in British politics have been the Labour Party and Conservative Party. Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of Parliamentary politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party to deliver a working majority in Parliament. The Liberal Democrats are the third major party in the UK parliament and actively seek a reform of the electoral system to address the dominance of the two-party system.
Though many in the United Kingdom consider themselves 'British' as well as 'Welsh', 'English', 'Scottish' or 'Irish' (and increasingly also 'Afro-Caribbean', 'Indian' or 'Pakistani'), there has long been a widespread sense of separate national identities in the nations of Wales and Scotland and amongst the Catholic community in Northern Ireland. Independence for the Republic of Ireland in 1922 provided only a partial solution to what had been termed in the 19th Century the 'Irish Question', and competing demands for a united Ireland or continued union with Great Britain have brought civil strife and political instability up to the present day.
Though 'nationalist' (as opposed to 'unionist') tendencies have shifted over time in Scotland and Wales, with the Scottish National Party founded in 1934 and Plaid Cymru (the Party of Wales) in 1925, a serious political crisis threatening the integrity of the United Kingdom as a state has not occurred since the 1970s. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland each possess a legislature and government alongside that for the United Kingdom. However, this increased autonomy and devolution of executive and legislative powers has not contributed to a reduction in support for independence from the UK, with the rise of new pro-independence parties: for example the Scottish Green Party and the Scottish Socialist Party.
The contradictions the West Lothian Question places upon the state may yet prove to be considerable. There is currently little appetite, outside of smaller parties such as the English Democrats, for a devolved English parliament, although senior Conservatives and Liberal Democrats have voiced support. Proposals for English regional government have stalled, following a disastrous referendum on devolved government for the North-East of England, which was hitherto considered the region most in favour of the idea. England is therefore governed according to the balance of parties across the whole of the United Kingdom.
The well-received resurgence in Celtic (Welsh, Scottish, Irish and Cornish) cultures and languages, as well as 'regional' politics and development, have contributed to the forces pulling against the unity of the state. However, there is at present little sign of any imminent 'crisis' (at the last General Election, both the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru saw their percentage of the overall vote drop, though the SNP did gain two more seats). In Northern Ireland there has been a large drop in violence over the last twenty years, though the situation remains tense, with the more hardline parties, such as Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionists, now holding the most parliamentary seats. [edit]
Law
Main article: Law of the United Kingdom
Parliament House, Edinburgh is the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland Enlarge Parliament House, Edinburgh is the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland
The UK has three distinct systems of law. English law which applies in England and Wales; and Northern Ireland law which applies in Northern Ireland, are based on common law principles. While Scots law which applies in Scotland is a hybrid system based on both common law and civil law principles. The separate systems of law date from the Act of Union 1707 which guaranteed the continued existence of a separate law system in Scotland.
The House of Lords is the highest court in the land for all criminal and civil cases in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland; and for all civil cases in Scots law. Recent constitutional changes will see the powers of the House of Lords transfer to a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
In England and Wales, the court system is headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). In Scotland, the chief courts are the Court of Session for civil cases and the High Court of Justiciary for criminal cases, while the sheriff court is the Scottish equivalent of the county court.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is a the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the UK overseas territories, and the British crown dependencies. [edit]
Geography Map of the United Kingdom Enlarge Map of the United Kingdom
Main article: Geography of the United Kingdom
Most of England consists of rolling lowland terrain, divided east from west by more mountainous terrain in the Northwest (Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District) and north (the upland moors of the Pennines) and limestone hills of the Peak District by the Tees-Exe line. The lower limestone hills of the Isle of Purbeck, Cotswolds, Lincolnshire and chalk downs of the Southern England Chalk Formation. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber Estuary. The largest urban area is Greater London. Near Dover, the Channel Tunnel links the United Kingdom with France. There is no peak in England that is 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) or greater.
Scotland's geography is varied, with lowlands in the south and east and highlands in the north and west, including Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles at 1,344 metres (4,408 ft). There are many long and deep-sea arms, firths, and lochs. Scotland has nearly 800 islands, mainly west and north of the mainland, notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. The capital city is Edinburgh, the centre of which is a World Heritage Site. The largest city is Glasgow.
Wales is mostly mountainous, the highest peak being Snowdon at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) above sea level. North of the mainland is the island of Anglesey. The largest and capital city is Cardiff, located in South Wales.
Northern Ireland, making up the north-eastern part of Ireland, is mostly hilly. The main cities are Belfast ('Béal Feirste' in Irish) and Londonderry / Derry ('Doire' in Irish). The province is home to one of the UK’s World Heritage Sites, the Giant's Causeway, which consists of more than 40,000 six-sided basalt columns up to 40 feet (12 m) high. Lough Neagh, the largest body of water in the British Isles, by surface area (388 km² / 150 mi²), can be found in Northern Ireland.
In total it is estimated that the UK includes around 1,098 small islands, some being natural and some being crannogs, a type of artificial island which was built in past times using stone and wood, gradually enlarged by natural waste building up over time. [edit]
Cities
There are many different statistics and debates on what are the UK's largest cities as each city is left to decide its own metropolitan area population but the cities listed below are generally considered to have a metropolitan area population over one million people:
* London * Manchester * Birmingham * Glasgow * Sheffield * Leeds * Liverpool * Newcastle upon Tyne
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Demographics
Main article: Demographics of the United Kingdom
At the April 2001 UK Census, the United Kingdom's population was 58,789,194, the third-largest in the European Union (behind Germany and France) and the twenty-first largest in the world. This had been estimated up to 59,834,300 by the Office of National Statistics in 2004. Its overall population density is one of the highest in the world. Almost one-third of the population lives in England's prosperous south-east and is predominantly urban and suburban--with about 7.2 million in the capital of London. The United Kingdom's high literacy rate (99%) is attributable to universal public education introduced for the primary level in 1870 and secondary level in 1900 (except in Scotland where it was introduced in 1696, see Education in Scotland). Education is mandatory from ages five to sixteen. Piccadilly Gardens, one of Manchester's main public squares Enlarge Piccadilly Gardens, one of Manchester's main public squares
As a group of islands close to continental Europe, the British Isles have been subject to many invasions and migrations, especially from Scandinavia and the continent, including Roman occupation for several centuries. Contemporary Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the eleventh century. The pre-Celtic, Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse influences were blended on Great Britain under the Normans, Scandinavian Vikings who had lived in Northern France. [edit]
Language
Main article: Languages in the United Kingdom
The predominant language of the United Kingdom is English, which is a West Germanic language descended from Old English, featuring a large amount of borrowings from Norman French. The English language has spread to all corners of the world (primarily because of the British Empire) and is referred to as a "global language". It is taught as a second language more than any other around the world.
Other indigenous languages include Celtic languages such as Welsh, the closely related Irish and Scots Gaelic, and the Cornish language. Additional languages are Scots, which is closely related to English; Romany; and British Sign Language (Northern Ireland Sign Language is also used in Northern Ireland). Celtic dialectal influences from Cumbric persisted in Northern England for many centuries, most famously in a unique set of numbers used for counting sheep. The United Kingdom's other languages are also spoken by small groups across the world, including Gaelic in Canada. Limited Welsh in Argentina is virtually extinct in spoken form, but some music is still sung in Welsh [3].
Recent immigrants, especially from the Commonwealth, speak many other languages, including Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, Bengali, and Cantonese. The United Kingdom has the largest number of Hindi-speaking peoples outside of the Indian subcontinent. [edit]
Religion
Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom
Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in the UK. Enlarge Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in the UK.
The main religion in the UK is Christianity, first introduced by the Romans. Each home nation has their own church hierarchies.
The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, and acts as the 'mother' and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion. Established in 597 by Augustine of Canterbury on behalf of Pope Gregory I, the Church split from Rome in 1534 during the reign of Henry VIII of England. The Church of England is a state church, and its bishops sit in the House of Lords. The British monarch is required to be a member of the Church of England under the Act of Settlement 1701 and is the Supreme Governor. The Church of England is based at Canterbury Cathedral and the Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior clergyman.
The Church of Scotland (known informally as The Kirk) is the national church of Scotland. It is a Presbyterian church and is not subject to state control. The British monarch is an ordinary member, although the monarch is required to swear an oath to "defend the security" of the Church at their coronation. Splits in the Church since the reformation have led to the creation of various other Presbyterian churches in Scotland including the Free Church of Scotland and the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland.
In Wales, the Church in Wales was disestablished in the 1920s, although remains in the Anglican community. The Church of Ireland was disestablished in the 19th century.
The Catholic Church in Great Britain is the second largest denomination of Christianity in the UK. Although after the reformation, strict laws were passed against Catholics; these were removed by the Catholic Emancipation laws in the 1850s. The Catholic hierarchy is separate in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland.
In the latter half of the 20th century, large scale immigration from the Commonwealth countries has led to the introduction of other religions that are popular amongst ethnic minorities. This has included religions such as Islam (see Islam in the United Kingdom), Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism.
Religions claiming pre-Christian British origins, such as Wicca and Neo-druidism, retain some followers, although actual numbers are not known. [edit]
Economy The City of London, the largest financial centre in Europe Enlarge The City of London, the largest financial centre in Europe
Main article: Economy of the United Kingdom
The British economy is based on the Anglo-Saxon model, focusing on the principles of liberalisation, the free market, and low taxation and regulation. Based on market exchange rates, the United Kingdom is the fourth largest economy in the world; and the sixth largest by purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates.
The UK economy was the first in the world to enter the Industrial Revolution, and initially concentrated on heavy industry such as shipbuilding, coal mining, steel production and textiles. The British Empire created an overseas market for British produce, allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century. However, as other nations began to industrialise, the UK began to lose its economic advantage, and heavy industry declined throughout the 20th century. The service sector however has grown substantially, and now makes up 72% of GDP.
The service sector is dominated by financial services, including banking and insurance. The City of London is one of the largest financial centres in the world, with the London Stock Exchange, the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange, and the Lloyds of London insurance market all based here. The City also has the largest concentration of foreign bank branches in the world. In the past decade, a rival financial centre in London has grown in the Docklands area, with HSBC, Citigroup and Barclays Bank all relocating their head offices here. The Scottish capital, Edinburgh also has a large financial sector, the sixth largest in Europe.
Tourism is also important: with over 24 million tourists a year, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world, between China (33) and Austria (19.1).
The manufacturing sector, although greatly diminished after World War II, is still significant to the UK economy. However, although the sector accounted for only 16% of national output in 2003, it is still significant to international trade, accounting for 83% of all exports. The British motor industry is a significant part of the manufacturing sector, although all volume producers are now foreign owned. Civil and defence aircraft production is led by the UK's largest aerospace firm, BAE Systems, and the pan European consortium, Airbus. The British manufacturer, Rolls Royce dominates the global aerospace engines market. The chemical and pharmaceutical industry is also strong in the UK, with the world's second and third largest pharmaceutical firms (GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca respectively) being based in the UK. Bank of England £20 note Enlarge Bank of England £20 note
The UK's Agriculture sector is small by European standards, accounting for only 0.9% of GDP. The UK has large coal, natural gas, and oil reserves; primary energy production accounts for 10% of GDP, one of the highest shares of any industrial state.
The currency of the UK is Pound Sterling (£). The Bank of England is the central bank and is responsible for issuing currency, although banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover the issue. The UK chose not to join the Euro on that currency's launch, although the government has pledged to hold a public referendum if membership if "five economic tests". are met. Current UK public opinion is hostile to the notion. [edit]
Administrative subdivisions
Main article: Subdivisions of the United Kingdom
Manchester Town Hall. Many town and cities in the UK have impressive town or city hall buildings as administrative headquarters for local government Enlarge Manchester Town Hall. Many town and cities in the UK have impressive town or city hall buildings as administrative headquarters for local government
The United Kingdom is divided into four constituent parts, commonly referred to as the home nations. Each home nation is further subdivided for the purposes of local government. The Queen appoints a Lord-Lieutenant as her personal represntative in lieutenancy areas across the country. The following table highlights the arrangements for local government, lieutenancy areas and cities across the home nations of the UK: Flag Country Population Subdivisions Cities England 49,138,000 Regions Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties Lieutenancy areas English Cities Scotland 5,0620,000 Council areas Lieutenancy areas Scottish Cities Wales 2,903,000 Unitary authorities Lieutenancy areas Welsh Cities Northern Ireland 1,685,000 Districts Irish Cities
Historically, the four nations were divided into counties as areas for local government administration. Although these are still used as geographical areas, they are no longer the sole basis for local government administration.
As England's population is an order of magnitude larger than the others so in recent years it has for some purposes been divided into nine intermediate-level Government Office Regions. Each region is made up of counties and unitary authorities, apart from London, which consists of London boroughs. Although at one point it was intended that each or some of these regions would be given its own regional assembly, the plan's future is uncertain, as of 2004, after the North East region rejected its proposed assembly in a referendum.
City status is governed by Royal Charter. There are currently 66 British cities (50 in england; 6 in Scotland; 5 in Wales; and 5 in Northern Ireland).
The Crown has sovereignty over the the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey, and the Isle of Man, known collectively as the crown dependencies. These are lands historically owned by the British monarch, but not considered part of the United Kingdom itself. However, the Parliament of the United Kingdom has the authority to pass legislate for the dependencies, and the British government manages their foreign affairs and defence.
The UK also has 16 overseas territories around the world, the last remaining parts of the British Empire. The overseas territories are also not considered part of the UK, but the local populations have British citizenship and the right to abode in the UK. [edit]
Military
Main article: British Armed Forces
The armed forces of the United Kingdom are known as the British Armed Forces or Her Majesty's Armed Forces, but officially Armed Forces of the Crown. Their Commander-in-Chief is Queen Elizabeth II and they are managed by the Ministry of Defence. The Tri-service badge of Her Majesty's Armed Forces. The anchor representing the Royal Navy, the crossed swords the Army, and the Eagle the Royal Air Force Enlarge The Tri-service badge of Her Majesty's Armed Forces. The anchor representing the Royal Navy, the crossed swords the Army, and the Eagle the Royal Air Force
The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting the United Kingdom's wider security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO and other coalition operations. The United Kingdom fields one of the most powerful and comprehensive military forces in the World. Its global power projection capabilities are second only to those of the United States Armed Forces.
The British Army had a reported strength of 102,440 in 2005 and the Royal Air Force a strength of 49,210. The 36,320-member Royal Navy is in charge of the United Kingdom's independent strategic nuclear arm, which consists of four Trident Ballistic Missile Submarines, while the Royal Marines provide infantry units for amphibious assault and for specialist reinforcement forces in and beyond the NATO area. This puts total active duty military troops in the 190,000 range, currently deployed in over 80 countries. 9% of the regular Armed Forces are women, a figure that is higher still for the reserve forces.
The UK's Special Forces, principally the SAS, provide elite commandos trained for quick, mobile, military responses; often where secrecy or covert operations are required. The Royal Navy is the second largest navy in the World in terms of gross tonnage. Despite the United Kingdom's wide ranging capabilities, recent pragmatic defence policy has a stated assumption that any large operation would be undertaken as part of a coalition. Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq (Granby, No-Fly-Zones, Desert Fox and Telic) may all be taken as precedent - indeed the last war in which the British military fought alone was the Falklands War of 1982. [edit]
Culture
Main article: Culture of the United Kingdom
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Education and science
The United Kingdom contains some of the world's leading universities, including the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford and the University of London (which incorporates, amongst others, King's College London, Imperial College London, The London School of Economics and University College London). It has produced many great scholars, scientists and engineers including Sir Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Adam Smith, James Clark Maxwell, Lord Kelvin, and Isambard Kingdom Brunel; the nation is credited with many inventions including the locomotive, vaccination, television, the railway, and both the internal combustion and the jet engine.
In 2006, it was reported that the UK was the most productive source of research after the United States; with the UK producing, for instance, 9% of the world's scientific research papers with a 12% share of citations [4].
In the UK, there are two types of schools, Public Schools and State Schools. Public schools are typically funded by the individual whom attends it, making it a more popular choice among the more wealthy citizens. State schools, however, are funded by the government through taxes. [edit]
Literature William Shakespeare, famed playwright Enlarge William Shakespeare, famed playwright
Main article: British literature
Playwright William Shakespeare is arguably the most famous writer in the history of the English language; other well-known writers from the United Kingdom include the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Emily, and Anne), Jane Austen, William Thackeray, J.K. Rowling, J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, John Milton, Oscar Wilde, H. G. Wells, Charles Dickens, Robert Louis Stevenson, Sir Walter Scott, John Buchan, J.M.Barrie, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and George Orwell. Important poets include Lord Byron, Robert Burns, Lord Tennyson and William Blake. [edit]
Music
Main article: Music of the United Kingdom
Notable composers from the United Kingdom have included William Byrd, John Taverner, William Lawes, John Dowland, Thomas Tallis, and Henry Purcell from the 16th and 17th centuries, and, more recently, Sir Edward Elgar, Sir Arthur Sullivan (most famous for working with librettist Sir W. S. Gilbert), Henri Eccles, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten in the 19th and 20th. George Frideric Handel spent most of his composing life in England.
The UK was, with the US, one of the two main contributors in the development of rock and roll, and the UK has provided some of the most famous rock stars, including The Beatles, Black Sabbath, David Bowie, Queen, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, The Rolling Stones, The Who, and many others. The UK was at the forefront of punk rock music in the 1970s with bands such as the Sex Pistols and The Clash, and the subsequent rebirth of heavy metal with bands such as Motörhead and Iron Maiden. In the mid to late 1990s, the Britpop phenomenon saw bands such as Oasis, Blur, Supergrass, Radiohead and Coldplay gain international fame. The UK is also at the forefront of electronica, with British artists such as The Prodigy, Faithless, Aphex Twin, Nitin Sawhney and Lamb at the cutting edge. The United Kingdom is also associated with music from the Caribbean, with a large number of Jamaicans and other Caribbean nationals being present in the UK. Recent rock bands to emerge include the Kaiser Chiefs, Franz Ferdinand and the Arctic Monkeys. [edit]
Media
Main article: Media of the United Kingdom
The BBC is the oldest and perhaps the most respected broadcasting network in the world, with the BBC World Service radio channel and its news output held in particularly high regard. The other main television networks are ITV, Channel 4 and Five. The main satellite broadcaster is British Sky Broadcasting, the vast majority of digital cable services are provided by NTL:Telewest (created by the merger of NTL and Telewest in March 2006), and free-to-air digital terrestrial television by Freeview. Popular programmes in the UK include the three major soaps - EastEnders, Coronation Street and Emmerdale. The most popular sitcom is Only Fools and Horses as voted by the British public for a BBC poll, although the show has actually finished its run and will not be returning for another series. Various British TV formats have been exported to other nations, such as Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?, The Weakest Link and The Office. Doctor Who is the leading British science-fiction series. [edit]
Sports
Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom
Tennis originated in the UK. The Wimbledon Championships Grand Slam tournament is held in London every July Enlarge Tennis originated in the UK. The Wimbledon Championships Grand Slam tournament is held in London every July
A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football (soccer), rugby football (rugby), golf, cricket, tennis and boxing.
The national sport of the UK is association football, but the UK does not compete as a nation in any major football tournament. Instead, the home nations compete individually as England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. It is because of this unique four-team arrangement that the UK currently does not compete in football events at the Olympic Games. However, a united team will probably take part in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, as these will be hosted in London. The English and Northern Irish football associations have confirmed participation in this team while the Scottish FA and the Welsh FA have declined to participate.
The UK also hosts many world-renowned football clubs, such as Manchester United, Liverpool, Chelsea and Arsenal in England and Rangers and Celtic in Scotland. Clubs compete in national leagues and competitions and some go on to compete in European competitions.
British teams are generally successful in European Competitions, including the following European Cup/UEFA Champions League winners: Liverpool (five times), Manchester United (twice), Nottingham Forest (twice), Aston Villa and Celtic.
Both forms of rugby are national sports. Rugby League originates from and is generally played in the North of England, whilst Rugby Union is played predominantly in Wales, Northern Ireland and Southern England; it is considered the national sport of Wales. In Rugby League the UK plays as one nation - Great Britain - whilst in union it is represented by the four nations. England is the current holder of the Rugby Union World Cup. Every four years the British Lions (comprising the best players from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland) tour other countries.
The Wimbledon Championships are international tennis events held in Wimbledon in south London every summer and are seen as the most prestigious of the tennis calendar.
Thoroughbred racing is also very popular in England. It originated under Charles II of England as the "Sport of Kings" - and is a royal pastime to this day. World-famous horse races include the Grand National and the Epsom Derby
Golf is one of the most popular participation sports played in the UK, and St Andrews in Scotland is the sport's home course. Cricket is also popular; although the popularity of the game is dramatically greater in England than the remainder of the UK, all four constituent nations as of 2006 compete at the One-Day International level - Scotland independently, Wales as part of the English team, and Northern Ireland as part of All-Ireland.
Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Northern Ireland with the counties of Tyrone and Armagh forming part of the 'Big Three' (along with Kerry).
The country is closely associated with motorsport. Many teams and drivers in Formula One and Rallying are based in the UK. The country also hosts legs of F1 and World Rallying Championship calendars and has its own Touring Car Racing championship, the BTCC.
British winners of the Formula One World Championship include Mike Hawthorn, Graham Hill (twice), Jim Clark (twice), John Surtees (who was also successful on motorcycles), Jackie Stewart (three times), James Hunt, Nigel Mansell, and Graham Hill's son, Damon Hill. British drivers have not been as successful in the World Rally Championship, with only Colin McRae and the late Richard Burns winning the title. [edit]
National symbols Britannia, featured on Royal Mint gold bullion coin Enlarge Britannia, featured on Royal Mint gold bullion coin
* The Flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag (commonly known as the "Union Jack"), and is one of the most recognisable and well known national flags in the world. Created from the superimposition of the flags of England and Scotland in 1606. The Flag of St. Patrick to represent Ireland was added in 1801. The Union Flag is not widely flown in the UK itself, and is only officially flown from public buildings on specified flag days. * Britannia is the national personification of the UK, originating from the Roman occupation of Britain. Britannia is symbolised as a young woman with brown or golden hair, wearing a Corinthian helmet and white robes,. She holds Poseidon's three-pronged trident and a Greek hoplon shield, bearing the Union Jack * The bulldog is often used as a symbol of the UK * God Save the Queen is the UK's national anthem and is sung at most official events, and for international competitions involving UK wide teams.
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Miscellaneous topics
* Cellular frequency: GSM 900, GSM 1800, UMTS 2100 * Cellular technology: GSM/GPRS/EDGE/UMTS * Date format: DD/MM/YYYY (ex. 29/2/2004 or 29/02/2004) or DD/MM/YY (ex. 29/2/04 or 29/02/04), other styles are DD.MM.YY or DD-MM-YY * Decimal separator is a full stop: 123.45 * Thousands are separated (formal) by a comma: 10,000, but younger people sometimes use: 10 000. * Voltage: 230V (except in Northern Ireland 220V) , 50 Hz; Power connector: 3 rectangle pins * Postal code: LN NLL, LLN NLL, LNN NLL, LLNN NLL, LNL NLL or LLNL NLL. See British postal codes
UK topics Subdivisions England | Northern Ireland | Scotland | Wales | Overseas territories History Timeline | England | Scotland | Wales | Ireland | British Empire | Social History | Foreign relations of the United Kingdom Politics Parliament | House of Commons | House of Lords | The Crown | Prime Minister | Cabinet | Government departments | Constitution | Local government | Elections | Political parties Geography Geology | Mountains | Lakes | Rivers | Transport Economy Economic History | Companies | Stock Exchange | Pound Sterling | Banks | Bank of England | Taxation Military Military history | Royal Navy | British Army | Royal Air Force | Nuclear weapons Demographics Languages | Religion | Subdivision | Cities | Towns Culture Art | Literature | Music | Cinema | Television | Sport | Media Symbols of the UK List of flags | Union Jack | Royal Standard | God Save The Queen | Coat of Arms 2006 in the United Kingdom British and Irish current events | 2006 English cricket season | 2005-06 in English and Scottish football | 2006 in British music | [edit]
See also
* Major powers - United Kingdom
[edit]
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A low-cost carrier or low cost airline (also known as a no-frills or discount carrier / airline) is an airline that offers generally low fares in exchange for eliminating many traditional passenger services. The concept originated in the United States before spreading to Europe in the early 1990s and subsequently to much of the rest of the world.
Business model
Typical low-cost carrier business model practices include:
* a single passenger class * a single type of airplane, commonly the Airbus A320 or Boeing 737 (reducing training and servicing costs) * a simple fare scheme (typically fares increase as the plane fills up, which rewards early reservations, known as "yield management") * unreserved seating (encouraging passengers to board early and quickly) * flying to cheaper, less congested secondary airports (avoiding air traffic delays and taking advantage of lower landing fees) * short flights and fast turnaround times (allowing maximum utilization of planes) * simplified routes, emphasizing point-to-point transit instead of transfers at hubs (again enhancing aircraft utilization) * emphasis on direct sales of tickets, especially over the Internet (avoiding fees and commissions paid to travel agents and corporate booking systems) * employees working in multiple roles, for instance flight attendants also cleaning the aircraft or working as gate agents (limiting personnel costs) * "Free" in-flight catering and other "complimentary" services are eliminated, and replaced by optional paid-for in-flight food and drink.
[edit]
History
The first successful low-cost carrier was Pacific Southwest Airlines in the United States, which pioneered the concept when their first flight took place on May 6, 1949. Often, this credit has been incorrectly given to Southwest Airlines which began service in 1971 and has been profitable every year since 1973. With the advent of aviation deregulation the model spread to Europe as well, the most notable successes being Ireland's Ryanair, which began low-fares operations in 1991, and easyJet, formed in 1995. As of 2004, low cost carriers are now edging into Australasia, led by operators such as Malaysia's Air Asia, and Australia's Virgin Blue. Boeing 737-700 of UK low cost carrier easyJet waiting for take off at Bristol International Airport, England Enlarge Boeing 737-700 of UK low cost carrier easyJet waiting for take off at Bristol International Airport, England
Low-cost carriers pose a serious threat to traditional "full service" airlines, since the high cost structure of full-service carriers prevents them from competing effectively on price - the most important factor among most consumers when selecting a carrier. From 2001 to 2003, when the aviation industry was rocked by terrorism, war and SARS, the large majority of traditional airlines suffered heavy losses while low-cost carriers generally stayed profitable.
Many carriers opted to launch their own no-frills airlines, such as KLM's Buzz, British Airways' Go Fly, and United's Ted, but have found it difficult to avoid cannibalizing their core business. Two exceptions to this have been bmi's bmibaby and Qantas's Jetstar which both successfully operates alongside its full-service counterpart.
In Canada, Air Canada has found it difficult to compete with new low-cost rivals such as Westjet, Canjet, and Jetsgo despite its previously dominant position in the market: Air Canada entered a period of bankruptcy protection in 2003, but emerged from protection in September 2004. Air Canada operated two low-fare subsidiaries, Tango and Zip, but both were discontinued. (Jetsgo itself ceased operations on March 11, 2005.)
India's first low-cost airline, Air Deccan started service on August 25, 2003. The airline's fare for the Delhi-Bangalore route were 30% less than those offered by its rivals such as Indian Airlines, Air Sahara and Jet Airways on the same route. The success of Air Deccan has spurred the entry of more than a dozen low-cost airlines in India. Air Deccan now faces stiff competition from other low-cost Indian carriers such as Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir and Paramount Airways. IndiGo Airlines recently placed an order for 100 Airbus A320s worth 6 billion USD during the Paris Air Show; the highest by any Asian domestic carrier.
In Finland the competition went in a different direction, as the national carrier Finnair lowered prices so that the low-cost competitor Flying Finn was forced to cease its operations. After three months of bankrupt of Flying Finn, the other operator Blue1 began flights to three best-profitable destinations of Flying Finn.
In Norway the competition started when Norwegian Air Shuttle started their B737-operations in September 2002, giving the merged Norwegian part of SAS and Braathens a tough competition. Norwegian started with domestic routes, but today their international operations is larger than their domestic service. By launching nonstop flights from cities like Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim in addition to Oslo , they soon became very popular. Norwegians are amongst the most frequent fliers in the world, mostly due to the geographic of the country but also due to the high level of income.
Australia's first low cost airline was Compass which launched operations in 1990 but was short lived. In 2000 Impulse and Virgin Blue commenced low cost operations bringing fierce competition to Australian cities. The former was short-lived, while Virgin Blue has become the nation's second largest airline. Qantas has launched two low cost carriers: JetStar competes with Virgin Blue in the Australian domestic market, while Australian Airlines operates internationally to Asian destinations.
In 1995, Air New Zealand established a low-fare subsidiary, Freedom Air, in response the commencement of discount trans-tasman services by the upstart Kiwi Airlines. Fierce competition on the trans-Tasman routes lead to the collapse of Kiwi Airlines in 1996. Freedom Air continues to provide discount services between Australia and New Zealand.
On May 5, 2004, Singapore's first low-cost carrier, Valuair was launched, prompting dominant carrier Singapore Airlines to invest in a new low-cost startup, Tiger Airways, to beat the competition. Not to be outdone, Singapore Changi Airport's second most dominant carrier, Qantas Airways, also started its Asian offshoot, Jetstar Asia Airways based in Singapore and commencing operations on December 13, 2004. Malaysia's Air Asia made repeated attempts to set up a Singaporean operation, but its insistence in using Seletar Airport, in addition to other demands to cut airport usage charges, delayed its abilities in gaining the relevant permits from the authorities in Singapore. This set-back may block Air Asia's Singapore expansion ambitions.
As the number of low-cost carriers has grown, these airlines have begun to compete with one another in addition to the traditional carriers. In the US, airlines have responded by introducing variations to the model. America West Airlines, now a part of the US Airways Group, offers a first class product, for example, while JetBlue Airways advertises satellite television. In Europe, the emphasis has remained on reducing costs and no-frills service. In 2004, Ryanair announced proposals to eliminate reclining seats, window blinds, seat headrest covers, and seat pockets from its aircraft. [edit]
No-frills transatlantic flights
The first airline offering no-frills transatlantic service was Freddie Laker's Laker Airways, which operated its famous "Skytrain" service between London and New York City during the late 1970s. The service was suspended after Laker's competitors, British Airways and Pan Am, were able to price Skytrain out of the market.
In 2004 the Irish company Aer Lingus lowered its prices to compete with companies such as Ryanair and also started offering no-frills transatlantic flights for just above €100. Late in 2004 the Canadian airline Zoom Airlines also started selling transatlantic flights between Glasgow, UK; Manchester, UK; and Canada for £89.
It has been claimed that unsubsidized low fare trans-oceanic travel will finally become affordable following the development of an extended version of the Airbus A380, which will be able to hold up to 1,000 persons. [edit]
See also
* List of airlines * List of low-cost airlines
[edit]
External links
* Wikitravel:Discount airlines - Advice on discount airlines and cheap air tickets * Search engine for finding cheap flights * Compare fares across all low cost airlines in Europe
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In rail transport, a train consists of a single or several connected rail vehicles that are capable of being moved together along a guideway to transport freight or passengers from one place to another along a planned route. The guideway (permanent way) usually consists of conventional rail tracks, but might also be monorail or maglev. Propulsion for the train is typically provided by a separate locomotive, or from individual motors in self-propelled multiple units. Most currently operating trains are powered by diesel engines or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Historically the steam engine was the dominant form of locomotive power through the mid-20th century, and other sources of power (such as horses, rope, gravity, pneumatics, or gas turbines) are possible as well.
In American railway terminology, and increasingly in the United Kingdom, a consist is used to describe the group of rail vehicles which make up a train.
Types of trains
There are various types of trains designed for particular purposes.
Further information: rail transport operations, and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]], and [[]]
A train can consist of a combination of a locomotive and attached railroad cars, or a self-propelled multiple unit (or occasionally a single powered coach, called a railcar). Trains can also be hauled by horses, pulled by a cable, or run downhill by gravity.
Special kinds of trains running on corresponding special 'railways' are atmospheric railways, monorails, high-speed railways, Dinky Trains, maglev, rubber-tired underground, funicular and cog railways.
A passenger train may consist of one or several locomotives, and one or more coaches. Alternatively, a train may consist entirely of passenger carrying coaches, some or all of which are powered as a "multiple unit". In many parts of the world, particularly Japan and Europe, high-speed rail is utilized extensively for passenger travel.
Freight trains comprise wagons or trucks rather than carriages, though some parcel and mail trains (especially Travelling Post Offices) are outwardly more like passenger trains.
In the United Kingdom, a train hauled by two locomotives is said to be "double-headed" , and in Canada and the United States it is quite common for a long freight train to be headed by three, four, or even five locomotives. A train with a locomotive attached at each end is described as 'top and tailed', this practice typically being used when there are no reversing facilities available. Where the second locomotive is attached temporarily to assist a train up steep banks (or down them by providing braking power) it is referred to as 'banking'.
Trains can also be mixed, hauling both passengers and freight, see e.g. Transportation in Mauritania. Such mixed trains became rare in many countries, but were commonplace on the first 19th-century railroads.
Special trains are also used for track maintenance; in some places, this is called maintenance of way.
A single uncoupled rail vehicle is not technically a train, but is usually referred to as such for signaling reasons. [edit]
Motive power A heritage steam train in Poland Enlarge A heritage steam train in Poland An early horse-pulled train Enlarge An early horse-pulled train
The first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th century almost all were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1920s onwards they began to be replaced by less labor intensive and cleaner (but more expensive) diesel locomotives and electric locomotives, while at about the same time self-propelled multiple unit vehicles of either power system became much more common in passenger service. Most countries had replaced steam locomotives for day-to-day use by the 1970s. A few countries, most notably the People's Republic of China where coal is in cheap and plentiful supply, still use steam locomotives, but this is being gradually phased out. Historic steam trains still run in many other countries, for the leisure and enthusiast market.
Electric traction offers a lower cost per mile of train operation but at a very high initial cost, which can only be justified on high traffic lines. Since the cost per mile of construction is much higher, electric traction is less favored on long-distance lines. Electric trains receive their current via overhead lines or through a third rail electric system. [edit]
Passenger trains
Passenger trains have Passenger cars. Passenger trains travel between stations; the distance between stations may vary from under 1 km to much more. Long-distance trains, sometimes crossing several countries, may have a dining or restaurant car; they may also have sleeping cars, but not in the case of high-speed rail; these arrive at their destination before the night falls and are in competition with airplanes in speed. Very long distance trains such as those on the Trans-Siberian railway are usually not high-speed.
Very fast trains sometimes tilt, like the Pendolino or Talgo. Tilting is a system where the passenger cars automatically lean into curves, reducing the centrifugal forces acting on passengers and permitting higher speeds on curves in the track with greater passenger comfort.
For trains connecting cities, we can distinguish inter-city trains, which do not halt at small stations, and trains that serve all stations, usually known as local trains or "stoppers" (and sometimes an intermediate kind, see also limited-stop). An electric multiple unit pulling into Tile Hill station; Coventry, England Enlarge An electric multiple unit pulling into Tile Hill station; Coventry, England Interior of a passenger car in a long-distance train in Finland Enlarge Interior of a passenger car in a long-distance train in Finland
For shorter distances many cities have networks of commuter trains, serving the city and its suburbs. Some carriages may be laid out to have more standing room than seats, or to facilitate the carrying of prams, cycles or wheelchairs. Some countries have some double-decked passenger trains for use in conurbations. Double deck high speed and sleeper trains are becoming more common in Europe.
Passenger trains usually have emergency brake handles (or a "communication cord") that the public can operate. Abuse is punished by a fine.
Large cities often have a metro system, also called underground, subway or tube. The trains are electrically powered, usually by third rail, and their railroads are separate from other traffic, without level crossings. Usually they run in tunnels in the city center and sometimes on elevated structures in the outer parts of the city. They can accelerate and decelerate faster than heavier, long-distance trains.
A light one- or two-car rail vehicle running through the streets is by convention not considered a train but rather a tram, trolley, light-rail vehicle or streetcar, but the distinction is not always strict. In some countries such as the United Kingdom the distinction between a tramway and a railway is precise and defined in law.
The term light rail is sometimes used for a modern tram, but it may also mean an intermediate form between a tram and a train, similar to metro except that it may have level crossings. These are often protected with crossing gates. They may also be called a trolley.
Maglev trains and monorails represent minor technologies in the train field.
The term rapid transit is used for public transport such as commuter trains, metro and light rail. However, in New York City, lines on the New York City Subway have been referred to as "trains". [edit]
See also
* people mover * Passenger train human waste disposal
[edit]
Freight trains An electric container freight train Enlarge An electric container freight train Freight wagons filled with limestone await unloading, at sidings in Rugby, England Enlarge Freight wagons filled with limestone await unloading, at sidings in Rugby, England An SP freight train west of Chicago in 1992. Enlarge An SP freight train west of Chicago in 1992.
Freight trains have freight cars.
Much of the world's freight is transported by train. In the USA the rail system is used mostly for transporting freight (or cargo).
Under the right circumstances, transporting freight by train is highly economic, and also more energy efficient than transporting freight by road. Rail freight is most economic when freight is being carried in bulk and over long distances, but is less suited to short distances and small loads. Bulk aggregate movements of a mere twenty miles can be cost effective even allowing for trans-shipment costs. These trans-shipment costs dominate in many cases and many modern practices such as container freight are aimed at minimizing these.
The main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the freight business to road competition. Many governments are now trying to encourage more freight onto trains, because of the environmental benefits that it would bring.
There are many different types of freight trains, which are used to carry many different kinds of freight, with many different types of wagon. One of the most common types on modern railways are container trains, where containers can be lifted on and off the train by cranes and loaded off or onto trucks or ships.
This type of freight train has largely superseded the traditional boxcar type of freight train, with which the cargo has to be loaded or unloaded manually.
In some countries "piggy back" trains are used: trucks can drive straight onto the train and drive off again when the end destination is reached. A system like this is used on the Channel Tunnel between England and France. Piggy back trains are the fastest growing type of freight trains in the United States, where they are also known as 'trailer on flat car' or TOFC trains. There are also some "inter-modal" vehicles, which have two sets of wheels, for use in a train, or as the trailer of a road vehicle.
There are also many other types of wagons, such as "low loader" wagons for transporting road vehicles. There are refrigerator wagons for transporting foods such as ice cream. There are simple types of open-topped wagons for transporting minerals and bulk material such as coal, and tankers for tranporting liquids and gases. Today however most coal and aggregates are moved in hopper wagons that can be filled and discharged rapidly, to enable efficient handling of the materials.
Freight trains are sometimes illegally boarded by passengers who do not wish, or do not have the money, to travel by ordinary means. This is referred to as "Hopping" and is considered by some communities to be a viable form of transport. Most hoppers sneak into train yards and stow away in boxcars. More bold hoppers will catch a train "on the fly", that is, as it is moving, leading to occasional fatalities, some of which go unrecorded. [edit]
Famous train routes
Main article: Famous trains
Famous historical train services include the:
* Orient Express in Europe. * Super Chief Chicago, IL to Los Angeles, CA. * Trans-Siberian in Russia. * Blue Train in South Africa. * Train-de-Luxe from Johannesburg to Victoria Falls. * Chihuahua al Pacifico in Mexico. * Glacier Express in Switzerland. * Palace on Wheels in Rajasthan, India. * Frontier Mail and Grand Trunk Express, India. * Broadway Limited New York, NY to Chicago, IL. * The Canadian in Canada. * 20th Century Limited New York, NY to Chicago, IL. * City of New Orleans Chicago, IL to New Orleans, LA. * California Zephyr Chicago, IL to Oakland, CA. * Indian Pacific and The Ghan in Australia (long-distance rail). * Puffing Billy and The Gulflander in Australia (heritage and touring). * Rheingold Express in The Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland, following the course of the Rhine. * Deccan Queen Mumbai to Pune, India. * Flying Scotsman, London to Edinburgh, in the United Kingdom.
[edit]
Fictional trains
* Silver Streak Appeared in two movies, the 1934 thriller Silver Streak and the 1976 comedy with Gene Wilder and Richard Pryor. * Hogwarts Express — Takes Harry Potter to Hogwarts Academy. * Taggart Comet (Atlas Shrugged) * The Great Train Robbery — feature film based on a true story, also title of a modern film. * Starlight Express (Andrew Lloyd Webber) — Musical about an old steam engine being replaced by an electrical engine. * Galaxy Express 999 — From the manga and anime of the same name by Leiji Matsumoto, this train travels the galaxy from planet to planet. * The Polar Express — From the book of the same name, this train takes children to the North Pole. * Runaway Train — Film about escaped inmates on a runaway train. * Atomic Train — TV movie (1999) A runaway train carrying an atomic bomb into a town. * Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends TV Series originated from The Railway Series by the Rev.W.Awdry * Astrotrain A Decepticon triple-changer from the Transformers More Than Meets The Eye character line.
See also: Rail transport in fiction and List of trains in films
External links: List of Railway Movies (as of December 5, 1995). [edit]
See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Train
* Amtrak * Armoured train * Coupling * List of railway companies * Rail transport modelling * Toy train * Train whistle * Train wreck
[edit]
Further reading
* Jonathan Glancey - The Train (2004)
[edit]
External links
* Book European rail travel online * High Speed Train * Official train times in the UK (from National Rail). * RailServe.com: The Internet Railroad Directory - directory of 10,000 train sites * Trainfoamers.com - It's Free To Talk Trains Again! * Trainorders.com - Focus on trains of North America * Royal Engineers Museum - Transportation
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Vehicle insurance (or Auto insurance, car insurance, motor insurance) is insurance consumers can purchase for cars, trucks, and other vehicles. Its primary use is to provide protection against losses incurred as a result of traffic accidents.
Coverage levels
Insurance can cover some or all of the following items:
1. The insured party 2. The insured vehicle 3. Third parties
Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or accident damage independently. [edit]
Public policy An insurance company may declare a vehicle totally destroyed ('totaled' or 'a write-off') if it appears replacement would be cheaper than repair. (Photo used with kind permission of car-accidents.com.) An insurance company may declare a vehicle totally destroyed ('totaled' or 'a write-off') if it appears replacement would be cheaper than repair. (Photo used with kind permission of car-accidents.com.)
In many countries it is compulsory to purchase auto insurance before driving on public roads. Usually the minimum required by law is third party insurance to protect third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle. Typically, coverage against loss of or damage to the driver's own vehicle is optional - one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan, where SGI provides collision coverage (less a $700 deductible) as part of its basic insurance policy. In South Australia Third Party Personal insurance from the State Government Insurance Corporation (SGIC) is included in the license registration fee. South Africa allocates a percentage of the money fom petrol into the Road Accidents Fund , which goes towards compensating third parties in accidents[1]. Most countries relate insurance to both the car and the driver, however the degree of each varies greatly. [edit]
Basis of Premium Charges
Car insurance plans routinely charge a flat per-car/per-year price regardless of how much the car is used. Since a time unit provides no actual measurement of the actual miles of driving exposure each car consumes during the insured year, insurers have no credible statistical basis for the cost comparisons used to support price classifications. Other methods of differentiating include: [edit]
Reasonable estimation
As a sales enhancement, many car insurers offer a “low estimated future mileage” discount to customers who predict that the car’s mileage will be below some stated limit during the next premium period. There is no verification involved and no additional charge if the car is subsequently driven more than the stated amount. This arbitrary discount tends to foster customer belief in the mistaken idea that “miles” are just one of many classification factors used to raise or lower prices from the territorial base rate. In fact, odometer miles (which insurers do not use) are not a factor but a metric - the only valid basis for measuring each car’s consumption of insurance protection in on-the-road use. [edit]
Odometer-based systems
Cents Per Mile Now(1986) advocates classified odometer-mile rates. After the company's risk factors have been applied and the customer has accepted the per-mile rate offered, customers buy prepaid miles of insurance protection as needed, like buying gallons of gasoline. Insurance automatically ends when the odometer limit (recorded on the car’s insurance ID card) is reached unless more miles are bought. Customers keep track of miles on their own odometer to know when to buy more. The company does no after-the-fact billing of the customer, and the customer doesn't have to estimate a "future annual mileage" figure for the company to obtain a discount. In the event of a traffic stop, an officer could easily verify that the insurance is current by comparing the figure on the insurance card to that on the odometer.
Critics point out the possibility of cheating the system by odometer tampering. Although the newer electronic odometers are difficult to roll back, they can still be defeated by disconnecting the odometer wires and reconnecting them later. However, as the Cents Per Mile Now website points out: "As a practical matter, resetting odometers requires equipment plus expertise that makes stealing insurance risky and uneconomical. For example, in order to steal 20,000 miles of continuous protection while paying for only the 2,000 miles from 35,000 miles to 37,000 miles on the odometer, the resetting would have to be done at least nine times to keep the odometer reading within the narrow 2,000-mile covered range. There are also powerful legal deterrents to this way of stealing insurance protection. Odometers have always served as the measuring device for resale value, rental and leasing charges, warranty limits, mechanical breakdown insurance, and cents-per-mile tax deductions or reimbursements for business or government travel. Odometer tampering—detected during claim processing—voids the insurance and, under decades-old state and federal law, is punishable by heavy fines and jail."
Under the cents-per-mile system, rewards for driving less are delivered automatically without need for administratively cumbersome and costly technology. Uniform per-mile exposure measurement for the first time provides the basis for statistically valid rate classes. Insurer premium income automatically keeps pace with increases or decreases in driving activity, cutting back on resulting insurer demand for rate increases and preventing today's windfalls to insurers when decreased driving activity lowers costs but not premiums. [edit]
GPS-based system
In 1998, Progressive Insurance started a pilot program in Texas in which volunteers installed a GPS-based technology called Autograph in exchange for a discount. The device tracked their driving behavior and reported the results via cellular phone to the company[2]. Policyholders were reportedly more upset about having to pay for the expensive device than they were over privacy concerns [3].
In 1996, Progressive filed for and obtained a US patent (US patent 5,797134) on their process. Progressive has also filed corresponding patent applications in Europe and Japan. UK auto insurer, Norwich Union, has obtained an exclusive license to Progressive's European patent application. They have recently completed a successful pilot test of the technology and it is now available commercially under the tradename "Pay As You Drive"™. [edit]
OBDII-based system
In 2004, Progressive launched another pilot program to allow policyholders to earn a discount on their premiums by consenting to use its TripSense device. TripSense connects to a car's OnBoard Diagnostic(OBD-II) port, which exists in all cars built after 1996. The discount is forfeited if the device is disconnected for a significant amount of time[4]. [edit]
Auto Insurance in the United States [edit]
Coverage Available
By buying auto insurance, depending on the type of coverage purchased, the consumer may be protected with these coverage types:
Due to the sharp decline in value immediately following purchase, there is generally a period in which the remaining car payments exceed the compensation the insurer will pay for a "totaled" (destroyed, or written-off) vehicle. So-called GAP insurance was established in the early 1980's to provide protection to consumers based upon buying and market trends. The escalating price of cars, extended term auto loans, and the increasing popularity of leasing gave birth to GAP protection. GAP waivers provide protection for consumers when a "gap" exists between the actual value of their vehicle and the amount of money owed to the bank or leasing company. In some countries including New Zealand and Australia market structures mean that people are more likely to buy a nearly new car than a new car so this is less of a problem.
In the United States, liability insurance covers claims against the policy holder and generally, any other operator of the insured’s vehicle, provided they do not live at the same address as the policy holder and are not specifically excluded on the policy. In the case of those living at the same address, they must specifically be covered on the policy. Thus it is necessary for example, when a family member comes of driving age they must be added on to the policy. Liability insurance generally does not protect the policy holder if they operate any vehicles other than their own. When you drive a vehicle owned by another party, you are covered under that party’s policy. Non-owners policies may be offered that would cover an insured on any vehicle they drive. This coverage is available only to those who do not own their own vehicle and is sometimes required by the government for drivers who have previously been found at fault in an accident.
Generally, liability coverage does extend when you rent a car. However, in most cases only liability applies. Any additional coverage, such as comprehensive policies, i.e. “full coverage” may not apply. Full coverage premiums are based on, among other factors, the value of the insured’s vehicle. This coverage may not apply to rental cars because the insurance company does not want to assume responsibility for a claim greater than the value of the insured’s vehicle, assuming that a rental car may be worth more than the insured’s vehicle. Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.[5]
In some regions, the costs associated with not having access to the vehicle ("Loss of Use") is also covered. This is usually an optional coverage. [edit]
United Kingdom Laws regarding motor insurance
In 1930 the UK the government introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third party personal injury insurance. Today UK law is defined by the The Road Traffic Act which was last modified in 1991.
The Act requires all motorists to be insured against their liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons property resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places. This is called Third Party Insurance. It is an offence to drive your car, or allow others to drive it, without at least Third Party insurance.
The insurance certificate or cover note issued by the insurance company constitutes legal evidence that the vehicle specified on the document is indeed insured. The Law says that an authorised person, such as the police, may require a driver to produce an insurance certificate for inspection. If the driver cannot show the document immediately on request, then the driver has ten days to take a valid insurance certificate to a specified Police Station. Failure to produce an insurance certificate is an offence. [edit]
Northern Ireland
Car insurance in Northern Ireland is at higher rates than any other place in the United Kingdom[citation needed] - especially for male Learner Drivers. Many citizens under the age of 21 are offered car insurance quotations for more than £2500.[citation needed] [edit]
Sources
* Texas Gives Green Light to Cents-Per-Mile Auto Insurance, NOW Insurance Project, National Organization for Women. * Pay as You Drive Now, Oregon Environmental Council, 2003. * Cents Per Mile Now, 2004. * Progressive's "pay-as-you-drive&qu ot; auto insurance poised for wide rollout, Joe Frey, Insure.com, July 18, 2000. * Insurance program rewards drivers who drive less and slower, Chris Miller, Aftermarket Business, Sep. 24, 2004. * New technology provides detailed info on driving habits, by Tom Scheck, Minnesota Public Radio, August 23, 2004. * The smartest way to buy auto insurance, by Jeanine Steele
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Paintball is a sport whose participants use markers to shoot paintballs (roughly marble-sized, .68 caliber, gelatin capsules filled with colored polyethylene glycol "paint") at other players. Compared to other sports, paintball has only become popular in the last few decades. The game emerged in the 1980s and quickly popularized. The game has drawn a wide array of players worldwide and is found in most major countries in the world.
The game can be played indoors or outdoors in a varying range of styles. There are no specific rules for playing paintball, leaving the game objectives, strategies, and plays to the imagination of the player and the regulations of the field. The sport uses many different types of equipment, unique from any other sport and has developed its own slang to describe special moves and situations. Contrary to some beliefs, paintball is one of the safest sports and is played by people of all skill levels.
History of paintball
The origins of paintball can be traced to the 1970s with the paintball markers used to mark trees and cattle. The first paintball game was played in New Hampshire in June, 1981 by Bob Gurnsey, Hayes Noel, Charles Gaines, and nine others. From there, the sport began to popularize quickly. The first recreational paintball field opened up in 1982. In 1983, the first tournament was held, with a grand prize of $14,000. The next year, 1984, saw the first indoor paintball field. In the late 80s, paintball fields began to appear in England and Canada. By 1991, fields were opening throughout Europe. In 1992, the National Professional Paintball League (NPPL) was founded and began hosting highly-publicized tournaments offering hundreds of thousands of dollars in prizes. By 1996, paintball fields and tournaments were being established and hosted all around the world. Paintball today is played by over 9.8 million people worldwide, according to the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association International, making it the third most popular Extreme Sport behind in-line skating and skateboarding. [edit]
The game
At the most basic level, a paintball game consists of a group of players who attempt to achieve a particular objective without being eliminated. Players attempt to eliminate each other from the game by hitting and marking each other with paintballs shot from paintball markers. Like poker, paintball has many variations, and each location or group of players may have their own "house rules". Variations may include the number of players on a team, the number of teams, differing objectives, length of the game, what kinds of hits count for an elimination, how long eliminated players are out of the game, and more. [edit]
Basic paintball games
* Capture the Flag - The classic schoolyard game, with a paintball twist. Teams start on opposing sides and attempt to acquire the opponents' flag while protecting their own. Victory is achieved by being the first team to hang the opponents' flag on the designated location at or near their own starting location. Also, victory can be achieved by eliminating (shooting) all the players on the other team.
* Neutral Flag or Center Flag - Similar to Capture the Flag, the game starts with a single flag at the center of the field instead of one at each end. The winner is the team that brings the flag to the opponent's end of the field.
* Elimination or Slayer - The team that eliminates all of the players on the opposing team wins.
[edit]
Styles of play [edit]
Woodsball
Main article: Woodsball
Woodsball, paintball's original format, is generally played in a wooded area large enough to hold dozens of players. Woodsball games generally take more time than speedball games. Players will often take their time and stalk their opponents in this format. Also, as a generalization, woodsball markers are not designed to fire (cycle) as fast as their speedball counterparts as suppression by fire is not as important in woodsball as speedball. Instead, accuracy is a much more key issue in most woodsball games. Accuracy is so important because woodsball tends to be more of a stalking game than speedball and other variants. Since stealth is consequently such an issue, players will do all they can to keep their locations unknown to the opposing team(s). Paintball markers tend to be relatively loud when fired, and thus can betray a player's position to opposing players. In response, woodsballers often try to buy quiet markers or 'mod' their current markers to be more quiet when firing. Woodsballers tend to fire less, as well, since it is harder to tell the location of an opposing woodsballer if that player fires sparingly, as the direction of the shots will be harder to place. To fire less often, players must have greater accuracy in order to maintain the same success rate as players who fire more often.
Woodsball, and its related variant, scenarioball, are the two paintball variants which see paintball 'snipers', players who concentrate on honing their marksmanship and tuning their markers more for accuracy than for speed, as in speedball. Paintball snipers are a rather controversial issue in paintball, as they cannot attain the range of fire that military snipers can. See the Woodsball article for more information.
Many different game types may be played in woodsball. Center flag, capture the flag, total elimination, protect the president, hopperball, 21, civil war, and many other games limited only by the players' imagination are popular. [edit]
Speedball
Speedball is a faster, closer-quarters game than woodsball and is played on a field about the size of a basketball court or two. Artificial barriers (bunkers), often inflatable rafting material, plastic tubing, wood pallets or tires, are placed throughout the field for players to move between and hide behind. Any material may be used and is usually placed in an open field in a symmetrical pattern, relative to the other side, in such a way as to give no advantage to one side or the other.
The close quarters foster a lot of movement and "bunkering", or running up to an opposing player's bunker and eliminating them from close range. Attributes concerning marker preference usually include high rate of fire or cycle rate (BPS, or balls per second), reduced weight and compact. Thus typically players shoot much more paint in this style of play. Most national and local tournaments and leagues are built around speedball and incorporate different skill levels. Teams are 3 man, 5 man, and 7 man. There are regulation size fields for speedball. A prime example producer of speedball is "Sup airball", and a widely known seller is Action Village. Bunkers include Doritos, Cans, giant cans, snakes, enchanted snakes, bricks, blocks, refrigerators, and cubes. (These are nicknames). Speedball is referred to oftentimes as airball, or x-ball (In which a large inflated x is put in the middle of the field.) [edit]
Scenario paintball
Scenario paintball games are often large scale games with a theme, usually Historical, Fantasy or Science Fiction involving hundreds of people, such as the Battle of Normandy, or modern scenarios such as storming a building and rescuing hostages. Scenario games can last hours or even days, and bigger games often have player re-insertions at set intervals. Skirmish Paintball in Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania holds several every year, including The Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Normandy, which drew more than 3,000 attendees in 2005. The largest is probably "Oklahoma D-Day" which drew more than 3,500 in 2005, plays across 700 acres of land and includes some 15 "Paintball Tanks " and pontoon-built landing craft. These events usually have props which can be captured for points and some attendees also "dress the part" for games ranging from Halloween costumes to full reenactment styled uniforms. [edit]
Tournament or Tourneyball
Modern tournament paintball, or tourneyball, has developed in earnest since roughly 1990. Woodsball tournaments, the original and once the most popular format, have largely given way to speedball fields, whose inflatable bunkers can be moved between matches or tournament stages. The most common tournament formats pit two teams of three, five, or seven players against each other. Teams play several other teams, accumulating points in each game for acts such as being the first to get the flag, bringing the flag to the goal, eliminating opposing players, and having non-eliminated players left at the end of the game.
Tournament Formats
* Capture the Flag - The original tournament format used in wooded play. Teams must capture the opposing team's flag and return it to their own flag station, receiving extra points for eliminating opponents and having players remaining at the end of the game. Capture the flag may be played with teams of various sizes from 3 to 20, commonly noted by referring to the event as a "5-man", "7-man","1 0-man", etc, depending on the number of players on a team. 20- and 15-man tournaments on wooded fields were common in the 1980's, but modern tournaments are usually 3-man, 5-man or 7-man and played on grass fields with manmade obstacles. * Centerflag - Like Capture the Flag, only with one flag in the middle of the field that both teams try to bring to their opponent's flag station on the opposite side of the field. Like Capture the Flag, Centerflag is commonly played in 3-man, 5-man and 7-man formats.
* X-Ball - A newer tournament format, X-Ball pits two teams against each other in multiple rounds of Center Flag played one after another until time runs out. The winner is the team with the most victories after two 16- to 20-minute halves. Teams of up to 18 players field five players at a time. Unlike most tournament formats that forbid players to communicate with people on the sidelines, X-Ball allows a coach to advise players on the field. Players who receive penalties are not permanently removed from the game, but placed in a hockey-like penalty box for several minutes. X-Ball has taken root at the national level, although variations are found in regional and local competition. The X-Ball Light variant has one period, typically 15 minutes long. The first team to reach a set point total (commonly 5 or 7 points), or the team with the highest point total after game time has elapsed, wins the match.
X-Ball was briefly considered as a Summer Olympic sport some time ago, but was rejected. [1] [edit]
Reball
A "reball" is a solid, dense-foam substitute for a paintball. Reballs are the same size as normal paintballs but weigh less, and do not contain a paint filling. While they do not break open to leave a paint mark on players, the lack of filling makes them useful for indoor locations where accumulation of paint from broken paintballs would be a problem. A reball is more expensive than a paintball, but since they can be reused, they are cheaper over the long term. Some paintball parks have added dedicated reball fields. The primary use of reballs, as intended initially by the manufacturer, is as a practice aid for teams who wish to practice and save money by using reusable ammunition. [edit]
Pump play
A pump action paintball marker operates on the principle that the player has to chamber a new ball after each shot by pumping or sliding the marker's cocking mechanism back allowing a new ball to enter the chamber, then pushing the cocking mechanism forward with the aid of the pump handle, to close the chamber requiring a total of two separate movements to "load" the marker. After loading, the paintball marker is ready to expel the loaded paintball.
A popular style of pump play is the use of what is referred to as a Stock Class marker. Stock class refers to the marker configuration, reminiscent of the original paintball markers of the early to mid 1980's, and forsakes the use of hoppers and a constant propellant source. Stock class play utilizes a ten to fifteen round tube parallel to the barrel of the marker. Typically, the feed tube of paintballs is mounted over the top of the marker running flush with the body of the marker so as not to allow any stacking of paintballs over the chamber and hence requiring the marker to be tipped (rocked) forward or backward before being pumped (cocked). The complete action for loading another paintball into the chamber of a Stock Class marker is called "Rock & Cock". 12 gram CO2 powerlets are also incorporated into Stock Class rules so as to require the player to recharge the marker with propellant after roughly 20-40 shots depending on the efficiency of the marker.
Although this style has lost popularity due to modern paintball technology greatly increasing the speed of paintball guns as well as their over all performance, pump tournaments in both the stock class and in another class, in which hoppers and propellant other than 12 gram cartridges, continue to be held and in fact attract some of the most popular professional tournament players to guest play on these pump teams. [edit]
Paintball equipment
Main article: Paintball equipment
[edit]
Organizations
Current professional and semi-professional leagues, such as the NXL (National X-Ball League NPPL (National Professional Paintball League), NCPA (National Collegiate Paintball Association), CFOA (Carolina Field Owners Association) the NEPL (New England Paintball League),the WPL (World Paintball League) and the SPPL (Scenario Paintball Players League), regularly hold high-class, well-organized events. These aren't the only leagues, however, as most regions both inside and outside the USA have leagues. The Millennium Series, the Nordic Series, the former European X-Ball League, the Centurio Circuit, the XSPL, the Paintball Association in the UK, the Argentine Paintball Association and many more leagues exist and draw large numbers of teams and fans. Tournament paintball is played by the same rules as normal paintball, but in a more competitive environment. There is a set number of people on each team (commonly three, five or seven), and modern tournament play is primarily speedball. Due to the competitive nature, most tournament players use high-end markers capable of higher rates of fire. The major leagues are National Professional Paintball League (NPPL), Paintball Sports Promotions™ (PSP), and Millennium Series. The leagues consist of a whole circuit of paintball tournaments, but smaller regional and locally-sponsored tournaments are very common. [edit]
Types of players
Players usually fall into one of three categories: recreational, scenario or big game, and tournament.
The recreational class of player encompasses a range of levels of involvement in the sport, from occasional players like members of church groups or people attending birthday or bachelor parties, through more regular players who may own their own entry-level equipment, but do not play in tournaments. Recreational players may play at commercial, insured paintball parks, or on private land.
According to the Sporting Goods Manufacturer's Association, of the approximately 10 million people who participate in paintball annually only about 15% (1.5 million) of them play 15 or more times per year. These frequent participants can generally be divided into two groups: Scenario players and tournament players. While these two groups differ in style of play and appearance, the most devoted members of both groups may spend thousands of dollars per year not only on paintball equipment, but also on travel to paintball events. [edit]
Types of playing locations
Most players play, and most scenario games and tournaments occur, at commercial, insured paintball parks. A paintball park may be an area of woods, a complex of speedball fields, or a combination. Additionally, some commercial fields offer fast-paced indoor game play, often with multiple rooms. Commercial fields adhere to specific safety and insurance standards and have employed staff (often called referees) whose job is to make sure players are instructed in proper play and play in a manner that insures all participants' safety.
Some players play on private land, often referred to as "renegade" play. While less expensive, and often less structured than play at a commercial facility, due to the lack of standards, instruction, and oversight, the vast majority of injuries incurred by paintball players occur in a "renegade" setting. Private landowners may also be liable for injuries sustained on their property, especially if there are any fees for play.
Major scenario and tournament events may sometimes occur at other locations like fairgrounds, military bases, or stadiums, essentially creating a temporary paintball park, including the trained staff and insurance found at permanent commercial paintball parks. [edit]
Strategies and tactics
Main article: Paintball Strategy
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Common rules of play
Prospective players should check the individual field rules where they are playing. Variations of the following rules are in effect at most fields. These are the most common regulations. [edit]
Safety rules
There are two primary safety rules for paintball which apply to all games: Players must always wear a paintball goggle and mask system, and the paintball marker used by a player may not shoot paintballs that travel faster than 300 feet per second (about 200 MPH). The velocity limit may be lower than 300 feet per second depending on the size of the playing area, or insurance or legal considerations. Paintball is an extremely safe sport when these two rules are always followed. [edit]
Tagging rules
Generally if a player is marked anywhere on his or her body or equipment with a US Quarter size mark or larger, that player is considered as having been eliminated. If the player believes the paintball broke before impact, or if he cannot see the area to confirm a hit, then he should call for a paint check (by yelling "paint check"). A referee will come over and make a judgment call. Usually, if there is any spot that isn't clearly a hit or larger than a US Quarter, it will not be considered a hit. While being paint checked, the referee may call the player “neutral” and he may not be marked or advanced on while being checked (this rule may or may not apply).
Even if the player is not marked, exclaiming "I'm hit" will eliminate him from the game. Players should always check to see if a paintball that has hit them has indeed broken. A paintball may simply bounce off a player’s body, and will not count as a hit. Players should always call for a paint check on another player, if they believe they have marked an opponent as some players will wipe off the paint and continue playing. This practice is widely considered cheating and may result in the player being banned from the field. In most instances a penalty of “1 for 1” will be called. This is where the cheating player and an additional teammate are eliminated from the current round. Paintball, like most sports, is considered a game of honor and the player has to judge himself first and then ask a ref if they are unsure. [edit]
The X foot/meter surrender rule
Some fields require that if a player is within a certain distance of an unaware opponent(usually 10 to 15 feet or closer), they must demand their surrender (by yelling "Surrender!") before they may open fire. If the opponent complies verbally, or by raising their hand or marker, they are considered marked and are out of the m
